Term
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Definition
| The ability to categorize things |
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Term
| Give an example of auditory categorization |
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Definition
1. Bach v. Stravinsky
2. Fish being able to classify and subclassify music genres (Chase 2001) |
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Term
| What is Cross Modal Perception? |
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Definition
| Cross modal perception is the ability to recognize objects with different senses. Ex- chimps feeling the inside of a box and knowing its contents, chimps seeing the contents of the box and knowing what they are. |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of categorization that assumes that we classify things based on whether or not they contain a particular set of features. If this is true, animals can solve discrimination tasks without regards to it's particular shape or nature of the entire problem. Ex- pigeons being able to discriminate between male and female human portraits |
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Term
| What happened in Huber's 2000 study? |
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Definition
| Pigeons were able to discriminate between male and female portraits but only when the pictures were in color. |
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Term
| What is the Rescerla-Wagner Theory? |
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Definition
| The strength of the association determines the strength of the coordinated response. (Categorization lecture) |
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Term
| What is the Exemplar Theory |
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Definition
| A theory of categorization that assumes instences are categorized either by remember they category to which they belong or their similarity to instances that have already been classified. |
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Term
| What is the Exemplar Effect? |
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Definition
| Familiar exemplars to a category are easier to categorize than unfamiliar ones |
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Term
| What are the Implications/Limitations of Exemplar Theory? |
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Definition
| Animals may have to remember an unreasonably large number of stimuli |
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Term
| What is Prototype Theory? |
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Definition
| A theory of categorization that states that exposure to the exemplars results in the creation of a 'prototype' |
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Term
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Definition
| A prototype is a representation that corresponds to the average members of a category |
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Term
| What is an abstract category? Give an example. |
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Definition
| A category that uses a more abstract basis than the presence or absence of physical features to categorize objects. Relationships as categories are abstract categories. |
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Term
| Give some examples of relationship categories |
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Definition
1. sameness
2. second order relationships
3. Analogical reasoning |
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Term
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Definition
| categories as concepts does not depend on the physical similarity of the members of the category, but should also be successful when the exemplars bear no physical similarity to one another |
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Term
| Describe the Roberts Mazanian 1988 study. |
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Definition
| Being able to identify a set of pictures on three different levels. 1. animal vs. non animal 2. bird vs. non bird animal 3. kingfishers vs. non kingfisher birds. Humans were able to do this 10 times faster than any other species. Squirrel monkeys and pigeons couldn't advance beyond the second level |
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Term
| What is the ecological significance of the Roberts and Mazanian 1988 study? |
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Definition
| It shows that animals can identify and categorize their own species from all others, as well as identifying and categorizing prey and predators. |
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Term
| Describe the Savage-Rumbaugh 1980 study. |
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Definition
| Chimpanzees sorted food from tools. Their performance was the equivalent of a 4yr old child. |
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Term
| What is spontaneous sorting? Give an example. |
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Definition
| Spontaneous sorting of objects. Vicki the chimpanzee could do this by age 3. She would sort nails and safety pins, short and long nails, buttons and screws, etc. She had no training and only made 20 mistakes in 200 objects. |
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Term
| Can primates form categories based on the relationship between 2 objects? |
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Definition
| Yes, in fact many species (excluding pigeons) were able to display a concept of 'sameness' between objects. |
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Term
| What was the conclusion of Katz and Wrights' 2006 study? |
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Definition
| That the number of pictures presented at once in 'sameness' studies dramatically effected success rates. |
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Term
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Definition
| Oddity is the ability to relate an object by its lack of connection to the rest of the objects in the set. Chimps were able to recognize this, but cats and raccoons were not able to do to this. |
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Term
| Is language important in categorization tests? Give an example. |
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Definition
| Yes, Alex the parrot performed significantly better than chance even when presented with novel tasks and objects. |
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Term
| What are second order relationships? |
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Definition
| A second order relationship is the relationship between two different relationships. Chimps and children under five were unable to solve these tasks. |
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Term
| What was the implication of Oden's study with chimps and toys? |
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Definition
| The implication of Oden's study was that chimps are able to appreciate whether objects are the same or different. |
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Term
| What is significant about the experimental design of Oden and Thompsons' study? |
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Definition
| The chimps were able to display a knowledge of second order relationships after they mastered the token lesson. |
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Term
| What is analogical reasoning? Give an example. |
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Definition
| The ability to create relationships between things based knowledge of previous examples. For example, "As dog is to puppy, so is cow to _____" So far chimps are the only primates other than humans to do this, and this is largely due to language training. |
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Term
| What was the name of the chimp who displayed convincing evidence that chimps have analogical reasoning? |
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Definition
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Term
| Make an argument that the ability to form second order relationships, use analogical reasoning, and perform match to sample tasks does NOT require sophisticated intellectual mechanisms. |
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Definition
| There is no concrete code/image to represent relationships, so we don't know if they're really being made in experiments. |
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Term
| Make an argument that the ability to form second order relationships, use analogical reasoning, and perform match to sample tasks does require sophisticated intellectual mechanisms. |
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Definition
| The sensation of familiarity could provide a discriminative stimulus controlling the correct response. |
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Term
| What do we know about primate abilities to count and perform arithmetic? |
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Definition
1. Relative Numerosity
2. Absolute Numerosity
3. Sequential Sequence
4. Number Modifications
5.The representation of a number
6. |
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Term
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Definition
| A horse who was able to 'perform' amazing arithmatic tricks by picking up on the body languages of people administering the tests. |
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Term
| What is Relative Numerosity? Give an example. |
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Definition
| Ability to tell if there is more of one element than another. For example, being able to tell which out of two piles of M&Ms is greater. Honing and Stonart performed relative numerosity studies with pigeons pecking. |
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Term
| What problems did apes have with relative numerosity? |
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Definition
| Apes couldn't control themselves with relative numerosity tasks involving M&Ms, but once the piles were replace with numerals they were able to pass. |
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Term
| What is Absolute Numerosity? |
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Definition
| Ability to determine the absolute number of items/events, etc. |
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Term
| What was the Rumbaugh and Washburn (1993) study? |
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Definition
| This study showed that chimps could make number modifications by forcing them to match the number of objects on a screen using a joystick with the Arabic numeral displayed. |
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Term
| What is Sequential Stimuli? Who conducted a study on this subject? |
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Definition
| The sequence in which stimuli in a study (such as positioning, shape, and orientation of objects) are presented in numerical studies. Brannon and Terrance performed studies with chimps on this. |
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Term
| What are the two ways to represent a number? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A set of numbers used to represent different objects. For example, numbers on sports jerseys. |
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Term
| What is an Ordinal Scale? |
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Definition
| A set of numbers that denote different positions in a sequence. |
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Term
| Describe Brannon's 2006 study and it's implication. |
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Definition
| Trained monkeys to to recognize patters with 1-4 objects. The monkeys were then presented with patterns with more than 4 objects and usually selected the pattern with the lower number of objects first. Rhesus Macaques are likely able to represent numbers on an ordinal scale. However, when the monkeys were trained in the opposite manner (descending order) they failed to generalize. |
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Term
| Give an example of evidence for use of the ordinal scale |
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Definition
| Alex the parrot was able to appreciate the relative magnitude of objects and hence ordinal properties. |
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Term
| Give an example of animals performing addition. |
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Definition
1. Objects were hidden under cups and Alex had to add them up.
2. Sheba the chimp would go into a room and look at objects placed under multiple boxes, add them up, then provide a numerical response for how many objects in total were in the room. |
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Term
| What was the implication of the experiment involving Sheba the chimp? |
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Definition
| This experiment suggested that Sheba was using an Interval rather than an Ordinal scale. |
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Term
| What is an Interval Scale? |
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Definition
| A set of numbers that denote different positions in a sequence, with the distance between adjacent positions being the same across the scale. |
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Term
| What are the differences between Interval and Ordinal scales? |
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Definition
1. On an ordinal scale, the distance between adjacent positions is not necessarily equivalent.
2. An interval scale allows for additions and subtractions. |
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Term
| How are primates able to perform the numerical tasks we've just seen? |
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Definition
There are three alternative theories to explain this:
1. Subitizing
2. Perceptual Matching
3. Counting |
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Term
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Definition
| To judge quickly and accurately the number of objects in a group without counting them. |
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Term
| What can subitizing be contrasted with? |
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Definition
1. Estimating (less accurate but can be applied to large numbers)
2. Counting (more accurate but is slower because it involves the process of enumeration one by one) |
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Term
| What is the conclusion about subitizing in relation to explaining how animals count? |
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Definition
| Subitizing may take place but it provides an incomplete explanation for the way in which animals count. |
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Term
| Can subitizing explain primates' counting ability? |
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Definition
There is no test to determine if subitizing took place.
Doesn't explain Brannon's 2006 study
Subitizing normally assumed to take place when the items being counted are presented by themselves. |
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Term
| What is Perceptual Matching? |
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Definition
| When an animal takes a mental 'snapshot' of a stimulus that contains numerical information; they then compare this snapshot with with a test pattern on subsequent trials. |
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Term
| Give an example of Perceptual Matching. |
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Definition
| Pigeons taking mental snapshots of blue dots and red dots and use these snap shots to compare to the presented picture of mixed dots and uses these previous snap shots to evaluate the picture of mixed dots. |
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Term
| Give 3 examples of experiments that contradict the theory of Perceptual Matching. |
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Definition
1. The Brannon and Terrace (2000) study in which monkeys were able to perform correctly with NOVEL numerical arrays.
2. Alex performing addition.
3. Sheba performing addition. |
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Term
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Definition
| Labels that represent numerosities, an essential part of the counting process in humans. |
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Term
| What are the 3 constraints that the counting process obeys? |
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Definition
1. The One on One Principle
2. The Stable Ordering Principle
3. The Cardinal Priciple |
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Term
| What is the One on One Principle? |
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Definition
| Each item in the set is assigned one and only one numeron. |
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Term
| What is the Stable Ordering Principle? |
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Definition
| The order in which numerons are assigned is always the same. |
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Term
| What is the Cardinal Principle? |
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Definition
| The final numeron assigned, and only the final numeron, is used as the representative of the numerosity of the set. |
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Term
| Who established the 3 principles of counting? |
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Definition
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Term
| What two generalizations can we make from Gallistel's counting principles? |
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Definition
1. All groups represented by the same numeron contain the same number of items.
2. If groups are represented by the same numeron, they can be treated in the same way, and categorization based on the number will be successful. |
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Term
| Do Gallistel's principles help us to determine if Alex or Sheba were counting? |
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Definition
| Gallistel (1993) provides the frame work within which to analyze counting, but we still don't know how numerons are acquired or how to determine evidence of counting in non human animals. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Animals can remember the order in which a sequence of stimuli has been presented or or a sequence of responses must be performed. |
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Term
| What is Simultaneous Chaining? |
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Definition
| A fixed number of stimuli are presented simultaneously and the subject must select each one in the correct order to gain reward. |
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Term
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Definition
| In Simultaneous chaining, assigning items to 'lists' |
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Term
| What conclusions can we draw from simultaneous chaining studies regarding pigeons? |
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Definition
| Pigeons may lack detailed knowledge about the list, or they may not be able to remember lists that contain more than 3 items. |
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Term
| Do pigeons, monkeys and humans solve simultaneous chaining problems in the same way? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the Magnitude Effect? |
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Definition
| Latency to select first object is shorter when it's closer to the first item in the entire list. |
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Term
| What is the Distance Effect? |
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Definition
| The latency to select the first item in a pair is shorter when the distance between the two items is larger. |
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Term
| What conclusions can we draw from Terrace's 1997 study in which Macaques had to select the correct picture from sets (Tree, fish, frog, Obama experiment) and achieved nearly perfect results from the beginning? |
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Definition
| During their original training, the monkeys acquired knowledge of the serial position of the items in the list. But we still don't know how they acquired these relationships. |
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Term
| How do monkeys represent the relationships of the serial postions of items in a list? |
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Definition
1. Arbitrary symbols (this is unlikely)
2. Spatial or analogical representation |
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Term
| What is transitive inference? Give an example. |
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Definition
| Using previous knowledge about items' positions in a set to determine the positions of other items in relation to the original items. For example, given that A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, A must be bigger than C. |
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Term
| Who did a study that proved that primates are capable of transitive inference? |
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Definition
| Gilian in 1981 (study with M&M can picture thingys) |
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Term
| What are the three suggestions as to how primates represent spatial information? |
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Definition
1. A geometric cognitive map
2. A network cognitive map
3. A combination of both? |
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Term
| What is a Geometric (Vector) map? |
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Definition
| A map in which exact angles and distances between sites are known. They allow for novel routes to be created. |
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Term
| What is a Network (Landmark) map? |
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Definition
| A map in which information is coded in terms of routes and landmarks. Can become complicated based on the number of landmarks and routes encoded. |
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Term
| Do primates travel along their own 'highways'? |
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Definition
| Yes! Primates use habitual travel routes. These routes can be used by different groups/species. |
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Term
| Why do primates use habitual travel routes? |
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Definition
| Ease of travel, distribution of important foods, ease of navigation? |
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Term
| Geometric maps may be used on a ______ scale while network maps may be used on a ______ scale. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| How many sites and for how long can non human primates remember? |
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Definition
| Hundreds for up to 18 months. |
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Term
| How many sites can an animal remember? |
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Definition
| Sheep can remember over 130 while Clark's Nutcracker can remember somewhere around 3,000. |
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Term
| How long do animals remember content? |
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Definition
| Frogs only remember content for about 35 days while Rio the sea lion remembered content from over 10 years ago. |
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Term
| What 3 theories explain the Short Term Retention Theory? |
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Definition
1. Decay Theory
2. Limited Capacity Theory
3. Deliberate Forgetting |
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Term
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Definition
| An explanation of short term retention that says an event is lost from short term memory because it's trace decays with the passage of time. |
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Term
| What is Limited Capacity Theory? |
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Definition
| An explanation of short term retention that says short term memory can only hold a limited amount of information resulting in new information displacing previously acquired information. |
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Term
| What is Deliberate Forgetting? |
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Definition
| An explanation of short term retention that says that if something is irrelevant, it might be discarded by a process of deliberate or active forgetting. |
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Term
| What are the two serial position effects? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A serial position effect in which there is superior recall of itms at the end of the list than in the middle. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A serial position effect in which there is superior recall of items at the beginning of the list. |
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Term
| What are the two explanations of Long Term Retention? |
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Definition
1. Consolidation Theory
2. Reactivation |
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Term
| What is Consolidation Theory? |
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Definition
| An explanation of long term retention that says after an event, a period of consolidation is required so the memory can be reviewed at a later date. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An explanation of long term retention that is a method for activating a memory for an event by presenting some of the cues that were present at the time of the event. For example, smells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A memory of an event that contains information about what happened, where, and when. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An individual's knowledge about the strength, accuracy, and ease of accessibility of a specific memory. For example, gambling macaques. |
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Term
| Just how far do animals travel? |
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Definition
Humpback whales go from Alaska to Hawaii, 5,000mi and off by only 1 degree.
Wildabeasts go 1800km
Salmon swim upstream to their birth place (use smell?)
Baboons and Macaques have only been recorded to go 60ish km and 80ish km, respectively. |
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Term
| What are so possible explanations to how animals navigate? |
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Definition
1. Global Navigation
2. Navigational Cues (Landmarks) |
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Term
| What are some possible explanations for a pigeon's homing abilities? |
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Definition
1. Retracing outward route, but even pigeons that are anesthetized can find their way back home.
2. The map and compass theory (use the sun/magnetic fields)
3. Bicoordinate Navigation |
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Term
| What are some examples of Navigational cues? |
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Definition
| Changes in air pressure, Infrasound, Polarized/UV Light, Olafacatio |
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Term
| What are some examples of geometric relations? |
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Definition
Clark's nutcrackers have appreciation for middle or half.
Capuchins may be able to mentally rotate the configuration of three landmarks in order to solve foraging problems. |
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Term
| How do animals know when to migrate? |
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Definition
| Endogenerous cues or timing |
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Term
| What is Endogenerous control? |
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Definition
| Cues for migration that arise from within the animal and not from external forces. |
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Term
| What are the two types of timing? |
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Definition
1. Periodic
2. Interval Timing |
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Term
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Definition
| Timing that allows an animal to respond at regular intervals, such as the same time every day. For example, always waking up at about 8:00AM. Many animals display this on a 24hr cycles. |
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Term
| What is circadian rhythm? |
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Definition
| The repeated occurance of an activity once every 24hrs that does depend on external simulation for it to be maintained. |
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Term
| Give an example of an internal clock (periodic timing). |
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Definition
| Cockroaches still maintained expected levels of activity even when they were unable to see light. |
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Term
| What are some alternatives to internal clocks? |
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Definition
Decaying memory trace.
Onset of stimuli to signal a series of events (i.e. behaviors happen in a particular order). For example, my alarm goes off, I eat breakfast, then I brush my teeth, then I get dressed. |
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Term
| Cultural behaviors are those that: |
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Definition
1. Are specific to members of a "group"
2. Are transmitted via some form of social learning.
(Calldwell and Whiten, 2010) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A series of behaviors or traditions that a specific to a group that are socially learned. |
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Term
|
Definition
| It is socially learned, not acquired from genetics. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A behaviorial pattern share by its practioners due to some form of social learning. (Perry, 2000) |
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Term
|
Definition
| the individual use of public information to organize behavior. (Perry, 2000) |
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Term
| Other than social learning, what are some explanations for geographic variations in non human culture? |
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Definition
1. Heritable differences that influence behavior
2. Environmental differences between habitats of the populations. These result in systematic differences in the reinforcement individuals receive for engaging in various behaviors.
3. Some sort of social transmission? |
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Term
| How do we tell the different explanations for geographic differences in non human culture? |
|
Definition
1. systematic studies
2. analysis of diffusion patterns
3. experiments |
|
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Term
| Why is analysis of diffusion patterns difficult to do? |
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Definition
| Because it requires that scientists follow the group(s) for a very long time and keep immaculate records of observations. |
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Term
| Give five examples of chimp culture. |
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Definition
1. hand clasping
2. leaf dropping to single wanting to be groomed
3. kisses
4. swallowing leaves whole at dawn
5. making sponges out of leaves
6. ant wands |
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Term
| Give five examples of orangutan culture. |
|
Definition
1. Building play nests
2. making raspberry sounds to indicate it's bedtime
3. using leaves as gloves when picking up pokey fruit
4. using tools to remove seeds from protective fruit
5. dead twig sucking
6. slow loris eating |
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Term
| What are the alternative studies examined by Van Shaik? |
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Definition
1. Innovation and Diffusion Hypothesis
2. Necessity Hypothesis
3. Free Time Hypothesis
4. Habitat Effect
5. Social Learning |
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Term
| What is the Innovation and Diffusion Hypothesis examined by Van Shaik and what was his conclusion? |
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Definition
| Culture differences increase as the distance between sites increases even when ecological settings are similar. This supports social learning. |
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Term
| What is the Necessity Hypothesis examined by Van Shaik and what was his conclusion? |
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Definition
| Food sensitivity vs. cultural variants (food related). Van Shaik concluded that there is no connection between the two. Although this doesn't directly support social learning, it does not support an alternative. |
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Term
| What is the Free Time Hypothesis examined by Van Shaik and what was his conclusion? |
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Definition
| Free time (time spent resting) vs. cutural variants. The more time you have on your hands, the more time you have to think and innovate things. Found the opposite of what was expected, the less free time subjects had the more cultural variants. So this alternative hypothesis is not supported. |
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Term
| What is the Habitat Effect examined by Van Shaik and what was his conclusion? |
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Definition
| More similar your environments, the more similar your cultural repertoire. Found there to be no effect, so this alt. hyp. is not supported. |
|
|
Term
| What was Van Shaik's conclusion on social learning? |
|
Definition
| As social contact increases, behavior repertoire increases as well. |
|
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Term
| What is stimulus enhancement (with respect to cultural variants)? |
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Definition
| If you're around someone who is performing a task a lot, you yourself are around the tools and situations in which that task is performed enough to perform it on your own. |
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Term
| What are the three differences between human and non human cultures? |
|
Definition
1. Teaching. Humans are the only species to actively teach one another in everyday life.
2. Symbolism. Primates lack a use of symbols in their cultural development.
3. Language (Mostly verbal) |
|
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Term
| What is teaching? (Caro and Hauser, 1992) |
|
Definition
| Any behavior of one animal that serves to assist another animal's learning. According to this definition, teaching is fairly common in the animal kingdom. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Flexible forms of instruction in which one individual modifies their behavior contingent upon the learner's progress, skills, or knowledge. This type of teaching is much less common and relies on the assumption of intent and knowledge of the mental states of conspecifics. |
|
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Term
| Give some examples of teaching in primates. |
|
Definition
Macaques encouraging their infants to learn to walk by standing a few feet away from them and encouraging them to come by outstretching their arms and smacking their lips.
Babooons yelling at their young when they attempt to eat dangerous foods.
Chimps do both of these. |
|
|
Term
| What is the critical aspect of teaching? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the differentiating factor between culture definitions? |
|
Definition
| It is agreed that culture must be socially learned. The only thing that differs between definitions is how that knowledge is acquired. |
|
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Term
| According to Boesch (1991), observations of teaching can be divided into: |
|
Definition
1. Facilitations
2. Active teaching |
|
|
Term
| Give an example of observed facilitation teaching? |
|
Definition
| Mothers allowing infants to play with nuts and hammers so that they can figure out how to crack the nuts on their own. |
|
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Term
| Give an example of active teaching (there's only two recorded). |
|
Definition
A mother chimp adjusting the nuts and hammer an infant is using to attempt to crack a nut. (Boesch 1991)
Washoe, a lang. trained chimp, rotated the hand of a fellow chimp into the correct sign. (Fouts1989) |
|
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Term
| Why were human children unable to cut to the chase in the clear vs. black box tapping exercise? |
|
Definition
| Because human children expect to be taught. They trust that adults to know what they're talking about. |
|
|
Term
| What was the conclusion of Lycett's 2007 systematic survey study? |
|
Definition
| Genetic variation is an unlikely explanation for the variation found in Whiten's 1999 study... behavioral and genetic trees did not match! |
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