Term
| What are the key strategies to running a successful presidential campaign? |
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Definition
-Plan far ahead
-Concentrate efforts in the early contests
-Raise and spend money early
-Develop a deep and wide organization
-Design and target a distinctive appeal
-Monitor public opinion |
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Term
| Why is money so important in election campaigns? |
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Definition
-Media recognition
-Credibility
-Flexibility in deciding where and how to campaign
-Helps to raise more money |
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Term
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Definition
| A push poll is a telemarketing technique in which respondents are presented with offensive or damaging statements about political candidates or issues under the guise of assessing how such information affects preferences. |
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Term
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Definition
| saturating channels with this message so that it will become more salient |
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Term
| What is gatekeeping? What principles are gatekeeping decisions based on? How does each of these principles manifest themselves in news coverage? |
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Definition
Gatekeepers are able to control the public’s knowledge of events by letting some stories pass through the system but keeping others out.
-Substantive importance - impact and significance
-Audience interest - human stories
-Product considerations - media and format considerations
-Corporate culture - shareholder, advertiser, and editorial preferences |
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Term
| What structural biases are found in news content? What problems do these biases pose for viewers? |
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Definition
-Personalized versus Institutional - events presented though private experiences; gives people little grasp of underlying causes and actual impacts or political processes or power structures, abandon political anaalysis
Dramatic versus Analytical - events with dramatic properties are emphasized; dramatization trivializes news content. It distracts attention from real issues
Fragmented versus Historical - Events contain many images with few coherent connections; stories lack connection, Long term trends and historical patterns are seldom made part of the news.
Authority-Disorder bias - Events are presented through certain acceptable points of view; official sources are often given the last word. |
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Term
| What is a symbol? What are its two dimensions? How does news coverage promote symbols? |
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Definition
-words or imagesthat stand for objects or ideas
-Cognitive – gives meaning to message
Affective – triggers emotions about the message
News coverage magnifies the acceptance of symbols
-By emphasizing style over content, the news exaggerates the drama and distinctiveness of messages |
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Term
| What is a pseudo-event? What are its primary features? Why are they undertaken? What are their effects? |
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Definition
| A pseudo-event is an event or activity that exists for the sole purpose of the media publicity and serves little to no other function in real life |
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Term
| What are the three goals of image making? |
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Definition
-Message Credibility
-Message Salience
-Message Composition |
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Term
| What major functions do the media perform for government officials? |
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Definition
-Inform them about current events
-Keep them attuned to the public’s major concerns
-Enable them to convey their messages to the public and elites
-Allow then to remain in full public view |
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Term
| Prior to television advertising, how did candidates spread their message? Which candidates ran the first TV ads? |
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Definition
Spread their message by traveling around and giving speeches, running print or radio ads
-First ad was run by Eisenhower vs. Adlai Stevenson in 1952 |
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Term
| What are the primary presidential communication strategies? What are examples of each? |
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Definition
-Winning Favor - Cultivate relationships by being accessible and arranging for creature comforts
Shaping the News Flow - Create news, restrict their contacts with the media to photo ops, prohibit staff from disagreeing with policies or meeting press without permission
-Orchestrating Coverage - Staging public ceremonies, timing the release of news |
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Term
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Definition
| The Madison Ave exec who convinced Eisenhower to put spot ads before and after TV programs |
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Term
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Definition
| symbols that have broad meaning/strong emotion (civilian deaths rather than body counts) |
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Term
| What factors make for an effective political advertisement? |
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Definition
-Repetition
-Syntax (complex lengthy sentences or short fragments)
-Positive or Negative Language
-Format (Biographical ads, issue advocacy ads, express advocacy ads)
-Target (attack ads, advocacy ads, contrast ads)
-Emotional Appeal
-Target Audience
-Production Elements |
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Term
| Describe three trends in political advertising? |
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Definition
-More money is being spent on political ads
-Political ads are increasingly being paid for by big groups, like national political parties
-Local candidates' control is diminishing (local advocacy ads less common than national issue ads) |
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Term
| How were campaign funds regulated prior to the Civil War? What methods did politicians rely on to secure funds? |
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Definition
| Prior to Civil War, funds were not regulated. Politicians got funds from corporations, even banks, sometimes even threatened them. Also came from party supporters with government jobs |
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Term
| What is the spoils system? What legislation undermined the spoils system? In what ways? |
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Definition
| The practice of politicians rewarding contributors with favors or jobs. Pendleton Civil Service Act undermined the spoils system by creating jobs that couldn't be given away by spoils. |
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Term
| 1868 Naval Appropriations Act |
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Definition
| Banned solicitation of government employees employed by the Navy. Had little effect on most people |
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Term
| Pendleton Civil Service Act |
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Definition
| Created a class of federal employment available only through competitive exams. Jobs could not be given away by spoils system. Took away party reliance on government employees for funding. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chairman of the RNC who systemized fund-raising from the business community. He assessed banks 0.25% of their capital, and corporations were assessed in relation to their profitability and perceived stake in the prosperity of the country. |
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Term
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Definition
| banned corporate contributions and gifts to federal candidates but did not ban contributions from corporate officers, shareholders, or anyone else associated with the corporation |
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Term
| What legislation undermined the power of corporations and unions? How did these institutions get around these rules? |
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Definition
-Tillman Act - banned corporate contributions and gifts to fed candidates, but did not ban contributions from anyone associated with corporation, so businesses could still contribute
-Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1910 - Set limits on campaign spending and required national party committees to disclose contributions and expenditures, only applied to single-state parties
-Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925 - widened FCPA to multi-state parties and required quarterly financial reports of all contributions >$100 - no effective regulatory system though and reports were never published
Hatch Act of 1939 - banned political activity by federal employees and limited how much an individual could contribute to a candidate or party
-Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 extended ban on corporate donations to labor unions and banned corporate/union expenditures on behalf of federal candidates |
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Term
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Definition
| Ads that promote the election or defeat of a candidate |
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Term
| Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925 |
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Definition
Widened FCPA to multi-state parties and required quarterly financial reports of all contributions >$100, increased spending limit for senatorial campaigns
- no effective regulatory system though, no independent enforcement agency, no penalties, and reports were never published |
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Term
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Definition
Banned political activity by federal employees not already covered by the Pendleton Act and banned the solicitation of political donations from all govt employees; they could vote in governmental elections but not participate in partisan politics
Limited how much each employee could contribute to a candidate or party |
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Term
| What is the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act? Why was it passed? What did it do? |
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Definition
-Lifted Tillman Act, made it okay for direct business and labor investment in political activities, creating PACs
-It limited the amount of money a candidate could give to his or her own campaign and placed limits on the amount a candidate could spend on television advertising
-Required candidates, PACs, and parties to disclose quarterly contribution and expenditure reports |
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Term
| What changes were made to the Federal Election Campaign Act in 1974? |
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Definition
Strengthened disclosure requirements, placed stricter limits on political contributions, replaced the media spending limits with overall spending limits for federal campaigns, and limited party spending on behalf of candidates
-Created FEC |
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Term
| Federal Election Commission |
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Definition
| New federal agency responsible for administering and enforcing federal campaign finance laws |
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Term
| What is the Presidential Public Funding System? How does it work? What are some of the problems with it? |
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Definition
Program where participating qualified presidential primary candidates are eligible for matching subsidies in primary elections, based on a dollar-for-dollar match on individual contributions of up to $250
-Candidates eligible for a grant of public money to be used for general election campaign
-Subsidies to national party committees to cover the costs of national presidential nominating conventions
-However, to be eligible for public funding, candidates have to agree to not raise any private funds for their campaigns and are subject to limits and caps on money they contribute themselves (~$20 million expenditure for campaign overall and only allowed to contribute $50,000 from personal funds)
-Problems: Lack of funds available, prohibition on early campaigning (funds only available after Jan 1 of election year), spending limits too low |
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Term
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Definition
the SC examined the constitutionality of FECA's major provisions
-Ruled that Congress does not have the authority to limit political spending as a means of promoting equality, but did have the right to regulate political contributions as a means of preventing "corruption and the appearance of corruption."
-FECA was subsequently amended to allow individuals to contribute as much as they want to their own campaigns except if they accepted public funding |
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Term
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Definition
Money—including corporate and labor union donations and unlimited funds from individuals—on non-federal party-building activities and administrative costs (usually voter registration and turnout programs) to dodge regulation
-Presidential candidates and Congressional members started actively raising soft money to be used by the parties for events and activities benefiting their elections
-Ex: Running issue ads featuring a candidate but not express advocacy ads (don't specifically tell you to vote for the candidate so it's okay) |
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Term
| What is the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002? How have Supreme Court decisions undermined its intent? |
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Definition
Tried to diminish the role of soft money in campaign financing by prohibiting national political party committees from raising or spending any funds not subject to federal limits, even for state and local races or issue discussion
-Tried to end the proliferation of issue advocacy ads, by defining as "electioneering communications" broadcast ads that name a federal candidate within 60 days of a general election, and prohibiting any such ad paid for by a corporation or paid for by an unincorporated entity using any corporate or union funds
-FEC vs. Wisconsin Right to Life SC ruling said that issue ads may not be banned in the months preceding a primary or general election and Citizens United v. FEC held that BRCA was in violation of corporations' and unions' First Amendment rights |
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Term
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Definition
| SC upheld by a 5-4 vote the key provisions of the BRCA, including the soft money ban |
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Term
| What did the Supreme Court case Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission find? What does it mean for corporations? |
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Definition
-Held that the BCRA was in violation of corporations' and unions' First Amendment rights.
-Corporations and unions can spend however much they want on political advertising and communications, can use general treasury funds for independent expenditures, can finance tax-exempt groups to advocate in federal elections, but they must fully disclose |
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Term
| What are the contribution limits for presidential candidates? How must they be disclosed? What are the exceptions? |
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Definition
-No limits for presidential candidates for using their own funds unless they accept public funding (Public funding - can only use $50,000 of their own funds)
-Contributions and disbursements of more than $200 must be reported
-Must be filed on a quarterly basis during election years and on a semi-annual basis during non-election years with additional reports required before and after elections |
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Term
| What are the contribution limits for individuals? |
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Definition
-$2,500 per election to a Federal candidate (primary and federal elections count separately)
-$5,000 per calendar year to a PAC
-$10,000 per calendar year to a State or local party committee
-$30,800 per calendar year to a national party committee
-Individuals may contribute up to $46,200 per year to all candidates and $70,800 to all PACs & parties |
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Term
| What are 527s? How do they avoid regulation by the FEC? Are they legal? |
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Definition
Organizations that do not make expenditures to directly advocate the election or defeat of any candidate for federal elective office, avoiding regulation by the Federal Election Commission
-Run by interest groups & used to raise money to spend on issue advocacy and voter mobilization outside of the restrictions on PACs
-They're totally legal |
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Term
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Definition
501 (c)s are tax-exempt non-profit organizations, such as social welfare organizations, labor organizations and trade associations who can engage in political activities and spend as much as they want as long as it's not their primary purpose, do not have to disclose donors
-Super Pacs are independent expenditure-only committees who can receive limitless funds from individuals, political committees, corporations and labor organizations if their purpose is only to make independent expenditures |
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Term
| When did debates first play a role in the presidential primaries and general elections? |
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Definition
Before 1960, there were 3 primary debates (1948, 1952, 1956) - 1956 was first nationally televised presidential debate
1960 - Nixon v. Kennedy led to first general election televised presidential debate |
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Term
| What was the significance of the 1960 presidential debates? Why did they come about? What was their impact? |
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Definition
First general election nationally televised presidential debate. Came about because for the first time, both candidates saw political advantage to using television and debating
-Nixon's poor appearance on TV became hugely influential in Kennedy's victory |
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Term
| Why were there no presidential debates from 1960 to 1976? What change led to their revival? Are they popular with TV viewers? |
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Definition
Frontrunners didn't want to debate their opponents (no incentive to), Johnson and NIxon were both opposed to the idea, equal time provision made it annoying
-Changed when FCC amended equal time provision saying that if hosted by a third party, equal time provision doesn't need to be upheld, League of Women Voters offered to host and then it became important to candidates to participate |
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Term
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Definition
| Provision of the 1934 Communications Act that requires radio and television stations and cable systems which originate their own programming to treat legally qualified political candidates equally when it comes to selling or giving away air time - extends to debates so everyone has to be represented |
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Term
| What is the Commission on Presidential Debates? What does it do? What criteria does it use to select debate candidates? |
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Definition
Created to ensure quality of debates. Its primary purpose is to sponsor and produce debates for the United States presidential and vice presidential candidates and to undertake research and educational activities relating to the debates, has sponsored every debate from 1988 onwards
-Critera: 1) Must be eligible according to Article II
2) Must have their name appear on enough state ballots to have a mathematical chance of winning
3) Must have at least support of 15% of national electorate as determined by 5 public polls |
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Term
| What are the advantages and disadvantages of online campaigning? Who were the pioneers of this method? |
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Definition
Advantages: Low-cost, candidates can devise their own messages and control the content of presentations, communication with the press can be improved, can facilitate the recruitment and mobilization of volunteers, donations, more precise targeting procedures, instantaneous
-Disadvantages - Taken less seriously, campaign lacks control over distribution, size of audience is small
-Pioneers - Clinton, Lamar Alexander, Dole |
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Term
| What four ways do campaigns engage supporters with Internet web sites? What methods are available online to pursue each? |
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Definition
-Opinion reinforcement: ads, email updates, encouraging supporters to share statuses
-Activism: mobilize supporters to work on behalf of the campaign - calendar of upcoming events, email updates, online flyers and ads to disseminate
-Donating - set up mechanisms of donating, sell merch
-Voter registration and Mobilization - send info about polling places and times, urge interest groups to send emails and forward messages |
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Term
| How are web sites used to approach undecided voters and journalists? |
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Definition
Undecided: Campaign assumes people who visit the site have already made up their mind
Issue sections detail positions and bio details candidate background
Journalists - email updates, archives of press releases and speeches, newspaper articles |
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Term
| How do campaign web sites treat candidates’ opponents? |
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Definition
Rarely do side-by-side comparisons; emphasize the negatives of their opponent, show a rapid response to allegations by opponent
Usually no negative campaigning online |
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Term
| What are the four eras of voter turnout? How has voter turnout in presidential elections changed over time? What are the primary demographic differences in turnout? |
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Definition
The Founding Era (1789-1824) - lowest turnout
The Party Machine Era (1828-1896) - highest turnout
The Segregation Era (1900-1948) - segregated electorate and experienced "reforms" to reduce turnout race
The Nationalization Era (1952-present) - greater federal gov involvement in the conduct of elections
People more likely to vote: women, old people, married people, white people, more educated, higher-income people |
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Term
| What are high and low stimulus elections? How do they differ? |
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Definition
high stimulus = high interest, high voter turnout; low-stimulus is the opposite
Differ due to: Differences in media coverage, significance of the office, importance of issues raised in the campaign, attractiveness of the candidates, and competitiveness of the contests |
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Term
| What are the six types of political participants? How do they differ? |
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Definition
Inactives - People who rarely vote, do not get involved in organizations, and do not even talk much about politics (~22%).
Voting specialists - People who vote but participate in little else politically.
Campaigners - People who not only vote but like to get involved in campaign activities as well.
Communalists - People who tend to reserve their energies for community activities of a nonpartisan kind.
Parochial participants - People who do not vote and stay out of election campaigns and civic associations, but who are willing to contact local officials about specific, often personal, problems.
Complete activists - People who actively promote a political party, philosophy, or issue they cares personally about. |
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Term
| What are the pros and cons of low voter turnout? |
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Definition
Pros: People are satisfied, less faction power, civic participation can make people feel satisfied and powerless, elites are more competent
Cons: Phony politics, low turnout means electorate is not representative, means people aren't advancing their own interests, political participation is positive, not a real democracy |
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Term
| What is the calculus of voting? What is the paradox of participation? How solves the paradox? |
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Definition
U = P * [(Dem B + Rep B)/2] – C
U=utility of the act (of voting etc.)
P=the probability of casting a decisive vote
Dem B=the expected political benefits from the Democrat winning
Rep B = the expected political benefits from the Republican winning
C=costs of the act of voting
Someone will vote if PB > C
The paradox of participation is that contrary to predictions of rational choice models, voting in elections and other types of participation are fairly common. |
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Term
| What forms of gratification do people receive from voting? |
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Definition
-Complying with the social obligation to vote
-Affirming one's allegiance to the political system
-Affirming a partisan preference (also known as expressive voting)
-Affirming one's importance to the political system;
-Researching and making a decision for those who find politics interesting and entertaining, |
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Term
| What resources are necessary to overcome the barriers to voting? |
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Definition
| Time, money, and civic skills |
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Term
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Definition
Participation is a response to contextual cues and political opportunities structured by the individual’s environment
-Results from the direct efforts of candidate/party organizations or voluntary associations OR indirectly via television coverage of political events and issues |
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Term
| What is party identification? How is it measured? Why is it important? |
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Definition
| It's the sense of attachment or belonging that an individual feels for a party. Measured by asking people which party they identify more with. It's important because it orients people in their political environment (affects how they take in news). It provides a base against which analysts measure deviations in elections |
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Term
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Definition
| The sum of the political predispositions of all the individuals in the electorate; the electoral outcome we would expect if all voters voted their party identification |
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Term
| What are the five party systems? When did they occur? What characterized them? Why did they end? |
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Definition
-First Party System: Federalists vs. Democrat-Republicans 1796-1824 - difference between strong fed government vs. state power
-Second Party System: Democrats vs. Whigs - (1828-1856) difference between Jackson supporters and Jackson opponents
-Third Party System: Democrats vs. Republicans (1860-1892) - Democrats were pro-slavery (Sourthern states) while Republicans were anti-slavery
-Fourth Party System: Democrats vs. Republicans (1860-1892) - Democrats vs. Republicans (1896 - 1928) - Populists after depression vs. Republicans who were in favor
- Fifth Party System: Democrats vs. Republicans (1932-1980s) - FDR's New Deal causes realignment, the poor move to Democrat while the rich move to GOP |
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Term
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Definition
Permanent realigning change in voting patterns; Electorate departs from its expected voting pattern but does not thereafter return to the old pattern
Happened in 1860, 1896, and 1932 |
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Term
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Definition
| A period of electoral instability when voters are much more susceptible to departures from underlying party loyalty |
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Term
| How does the socio-psychological model of voting operate? |
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Definition
Asserts that the principal motivation behind voting is party identification (PID), which is believed to be a long-term stable psychological affinity for one of the two major parties
-You don't need to know anything about the issues or candidates in order to make electoral decisions
Deviations are due to issues or candidate traits |
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Term
| What criteria are necessary for issue voting? Is it common? On what issues does it occur the most? |
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Definition
-Voter must be aware of issue and have an opinion
-Issue must arouse some intensity of feeling for the voter
-Voter must be aware of the candidates’ positions on the issue
-Voter must select the candidate who is closest to the voter on the issue
Occurs most on economic issues, not common though |
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Term
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Definition
-Those issues, on which parties are differentiated by their advocacy of alternative position
-Example: abortion |
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Term
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Definition
-Those issues, on which parties are differentiated not by what they advocate but by the degree to which they are linked in the public‘s mind with conditions or goals of which almost everyone approves or disapproves.
-Example: corruption |
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Term
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Definition
| Voters casting their election ballots based on how they perceive their personal economic circumstances |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which people choose either to reelect candidates who they feel have made efforts to pass policies that have benefited them or to support opposing candidates who will pass policies that they feel they are lacking |
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Term
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Definition
| Citizens take into account larger national economic conditions when determining for how to vote |
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Term
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Definition
| Voting with the future in mind |
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Term
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Definition
| Unmediated communication transpires when the parties to the communication are present in space in relation to each other in a manner that enables them to apprehend each other through the use of all of their senses. |
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