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all the chemical reactions of an organism |
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catabolic vs. anabolic pathways |
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catabolic- degradative, spend energy anabolic- consume energy |
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kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms |
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potential energy available for a reaction |
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first law of thermodynamics |
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energy cannot be destroyed |
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second law of thermodynamics |
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entropy (disorder) is always increasing |
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can occur without an input of energy |
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=G (Gibbs free energy) a system's energy that can perform work G=H-TS -G =spontaneous |
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reaction that occurs with net release of free energy spontaneous reaction |
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reaction that occurs with a net absorbtion of energy nonspontaneous |
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using a exergonic reaction to drive an endergoinc reaction |
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exergonic reaction realeses 7.3 kcal of energy under standard conditions and about 13 kcal in cellular condition negatively charged phosphate groups contribute to instability of ATP |
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energy comes from exergonic reactions in cell ex. light energy and cellular respiration |
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catalysts and activation energy |
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speeds up a reaction without being consumed ex. enzymes activation energy is the energy needed to start the "downhill" part of the reaction present in all exergoinc reactions and determines the rate of the reaction |
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lower activation energy barrier binds to substrate with H or ionic bonds converts the substrate to the product |
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4 ways enzymes reduce energy barrier |
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provide template stressing the substrate and stablizing the transition provide a ideal microenvironment participating directly in reaction |
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helpers for catalysts can be permanent or bind loosely |
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competitive- block substrates from active site noncompetitive- bind to another part of the enzyme |
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protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule at another site (ATP is an inhibitor and ADP is a promoter regulatory molecule) |
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when one substrate molecule binds and increases the affinity for more substrate molecules |
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oxygen is consumed as a reactan along with organic material |
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technically means both anaerobic and aerobic respiration (usually means aerobic) helpful to learn steps using glucose breakdown into CO2 H2O and energy 3 steps- glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation |
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redox reaction of cellular respiration |
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Definition
glucose becomes oxidized into carbon dioxide oxygen becomes reduced into water |
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hydrogen atoms are not directly transferred to oxygen but to elctron carrier NAD+ oxidizing agent coenzyme |
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takes 2 hydrogens from glucose and adds 2 electons and one proton to NAD+ and leaves one electon as H+ |
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breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen into several energy releasing steps each downhill step is more electronegative than and capable of oxidizing the previous step collection of molecules embedded in inner membrane of mitochondrion doesn't form ATP! |
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1st step of cellular respiration occurs in the cytosol breaks down glucose into 2 3-carbon sugars which are oxidized and rearranged into 2 pyruvates produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH occurs whether or not oxygen is present 2 phases- energy investment and energy payoff |
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Definition
takes place in the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotes or in the cytosol of prokaryotes oxidizes a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide first converted to acetyl CoA before it happens forms 1 ATP/GTP, 3 CO2, 3 NADH and FADH2 |
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oxidative phosphorylation |
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Definition
3rd step of cellular respiration electron transport chain accepts electrons and passes them to H+ forming water energy released is stored so it can make ATP |
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substrate level phosphorylation |
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Definition
how ATP is formed during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle adding a phosphate group from the substrate molecule instead of an inorganic phosphate as in oxidative phosphorylation |
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energy investment phase of glycolysis |
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Definition
2 ATP used glucose is phophorylated by hexokinase- makes it stay in cell and makes it more reactive glucose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-6-phosphate another phosphate group is added aldolase cleaves the sugar into 2 different 3 carbon sugars (isomers) isomerase converts one isomer to the other- only glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is used next |
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payoff phase of glycolysis |
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Definition
produces 4 ATP and 2 NADH enzyme catalyses 2 reaction- sugar is oxidized forming NADH and energy from this is used to attach phosphate group (high potential energy) phosphate group is used to make ATP, no longer a sugar phosphate group is relocated enzyme causes double bond and extracts water, high potential energy pyruvate is formed by the release of phosphate group to ATP |
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no oxygen present- uses electron transport chain but something else as the electron acceptor |
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no transport chain and no oxygen expansion of glycolysis that provides more ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation needs to be a sufficient supply of NAD+ |
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pyruvate is converted to ethanol 1st step releases CO2 2nd step it is reduced by NADH to ethanol (regenerates NAD+) |
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pyruvate is directly reduced by NADH |
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pyruvate's carboxyl group is removed as CO2 carbon fragment is oxidized- forming NADH coenzyme A is attached by unstable bond |
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1. acetyl CoA adds its acetyl to oxaloacetate to produce citrate 2. citrate is converted to its isomer by removal and addition of H2O 3. isocitrate is oxidized, forming NADH, CO2 is lost 4. another CO2 is lost and compound is oxidized, forming NADH, then attached to coenzyme A 5. coA is displaced by phosphate group which is then added to GTP 6. 2 hydrogens are transferred to FAD 7. addition of water molecule 8. substrate is oxidized, forming NADH, regenerate oxaloacetate |
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Definition
has a heme group that readily accepts and donates electrons, in transport chain |
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chemiosmosis and ATP synthase |
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Definition
energy stored in the form of hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane used to drive cellular work atp synthase- rotary motor [image] |
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reasons that ATP numbers are not exact |
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Definition
phosphorylation and redox are not directly coupled depends on the type of shuttle used to transfer electons from cytosol to mitochondria proton motive force drives other processes |
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Definition
pacemaker of cellular respiration catalyzes step three of glycolysis- first step that commits the sustrate irreversibly allosteric enzyme- inhibited by ATP and stimulated by AMP sensitive to citrate- inhibits |
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interior tissue of leaf each cell typically holds 30-40 choloplasts 2 membranes- holds stroma and thylakoids |
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interconnected membranous sacs that segregate stroma from the thylakoid space chlorophyll resides inthe thylakoid membrane |
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splitting of water in photosynthesis |
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Definition
oxygen given off by plants comes from water not from CO2 different organisms uses different sources for thier H |
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2 stages of photosynthesis |
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Definition
light reactions(thylakoids) and Calvin cycle(stroma) light reactions- water is split and hydrogens are transferred to NADP+, generates ATP using chemiosmosis (Photophosphorylation) Calvin Cycle- carbon fixation, reduces fixed carbon with NADPH and ATP |
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incorporating carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into organic compunds that are already present |
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accessory pigments hydrocarbos that are yellow and orange may broaden teh spectrum that can drive photosynthesis but they more importantly protect against excessive light energy |
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composed of a reaction-center complex surrounded by several light harvesting complexes converts light energy to chemical energy pigments in LHC absorb energy and pass electron from pigment to pigment until it reaches RCC and two special chylorophyll a pass electron on to primary electron acceptor two types- I and II [image] |
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excitation of chlorophyll |
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Definition
molecule absorbs photon and an electon is excited toa higher orbital |
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Definition
flow of electrons through the photosystems and other components of the thylakoid membrane 1. photon absorbed and transferred from the excited P680 to primary electron acceptor 2. water is split, electrons are suplied to P680+ and O2 forms 3. photoexcited electron moves to electon acceptor in PSI (P700+ forms) with electron transport chain 4. proton gradient is created and available for ATP synthesis 5. electrons are passed from electron acceptor in PSI to ferredoxin 6. electron transfer from Fd to NADPH (2 e- required) |
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Definition
uses photosystem I but not II generates ATP but not NADPH evolutionary leftover |
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uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)- takes three cycles to make one (for on G#P- 9 ATP, six NADPH) 1. carbon fixation- rubisco helps attach CO2 to 5 carbon sugar- so unstable it splits into 2 2. reduction- recieves phosphate group and NADPH reduces and phoshate is removed, 6 G3P formed from 3 CO2 but only one exits cycle,other are used to regenerate RuBP 3. regeneration- spends three more ATP |
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when CO2 is lacking rubisco in C3 plants binds oxygen instead of carbon dioxide produces no sugar and no ATP drains away fixed carbon- seems counterproductive |
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form a four carbon sugar as first product leaf anatomy- 2 types of photosynthetic cells- bundle sheath (calvin cycle) and mesophyll (fixation) 1. PEP carboxylase adds CO2 to PEP forming the 4 carbon product 2. mesophyll cells export thier 4-carbon product to bundle sheath cells through plasmodesmata 3. coupounds release CO2 whihc is made back into organic material |
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Definition
used in arid climates stomata open during the night and close during the day |
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origin of multicellularity |
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common ancestor lived 1.5 billion years ago relatively small algae |
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signal transduction pathway |
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process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted to a cellular response |
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used fro long distance cell signaling |
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Definition
molecule that specifically bind to another generally causes receptor to change shape |
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Definition
seven alpha helices that span the membrane signaling molecule binds and attracts G protein with GDP and activates the protein the activated G protein bind to an enzyme and it triggers the next response becomes inactivated |
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receptor tyrosine kinases |
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have enzymatic activity 2 signaling molecules bind and the 2 proteins combine phosphorylation of each tyrosine relay proteins bind to tyrosine and celllar response ensues |
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enzyme that transfers phosphate group from ATP to protein |
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enzymes that can rapidly move phosphate groupsfrom proteins |
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Definition
water soluble molecules or ions ex. cyclic AMP and Ca2+ |
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adenylyl cyclase converst ATP to cAMP immediate effect of cAMP is hte activation of kinase A which then phophorylates other proteins |
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Definition
second messengers that help in release of CA2+ messenger |
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found in all animals active immediately upon infection |
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Definition
only found in vertebrates activated after innate immune defenses take effect develop more solwly |
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innate immunity of invertebrates |
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Definition
exoskeleton lysozyme- digest microbial walls hemocytes- phagocytosis, trigger production of chemicals and antimicrobial peptides |
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innate immunity of vertebrates |
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barrier defenses, phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides, inflammatory response and natural killer cells |
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toll-like receptors on the surface trigger phagocytosis and then fuse with lysosome and gases and enyzmes destroy microbial components |
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neutrophils macrophages eosinophils dendritic cells |
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proteins that provide innate defenses against viral infections |
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ability to alter form in response to environment |
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one main vertical root that develops from an embryonic root with lateral roots branching from it stores sugars and starches |
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when the embryonic root dies and many small roots grow from the stem |
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points at which leaves are attached stem segments between nodes |
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stalk of a leaf, joins the leaf to node |
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monocots - parallel major veins eudicots - branched network of major veins |
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hairlike extensions of the shoot system epidermis |
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the vascular tissue of root or stem vascular cylinder in root vascular bundles in stems and leaves |
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ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue |
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ground tissue external to vascular tissue |
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have large central vacuole perform metabolic functions (eg. photosynthesis) can divide and differentiate thin and flexible primary walls |
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grouped in strands or cylinders flexible support thick primary walls |
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have secondary walls with lignin less flexible support many are dead at maturity |
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water conducting cells of the xylem |
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Definition
tubular elongated cells, dead at maturity tracheids- long, thin, tapered vessel elements- wider, shorter, thinner and less tapered |
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sugar conducting cells of the phloem |
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Definition
alive at functional maturity sieve cells- lack nucleus, ribosomes, a vacuole and cytoskeleton have companion cells |
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Definition
perpetually embroynic tissues- allows for indeterminate growth apical (primary growth) or lateral (secondary growth) |
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adds layers of secondary xylem and phloem |
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replaces epidermis with periderm |
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three zones of primary growth |
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cell division elongation differentiation |
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innermost layer of cortex |
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outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder from where the lateral roots arise |
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projections along the sides of the apical meristem leaves develop from them |
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