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| Kohlberg's levels of Moral Reasoning |
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Definition
3 levels, 6 stages.
Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional |
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| Preconventional reasoning |
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Definition
for individuals who have not internalized right and wrong
Stages 1 & 2 |
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| moral decisions are based on selfish needs, including the avoidance of punishment |
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| favors can be exchanged with others only if there are no negative consequences for self |
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| focused on following society's norms -- even if there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules is somewhat rigid and seldom questioned |
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| moral decisions are justified by the need to please others, especially authority figures |
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| individuals justify their decisions based on the need to maintain order in society |
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| Postconventional reasoning |
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| reflects individual judgements |
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| individuals reason that rules are mechanisms to maintain general social order and protect human rights but not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. |
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| moral reasoning emphasizes universal principles such as equality for all people, human dignity, and a commitment to justice. |
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| long term change in mental representations or associations due to experience |
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| process of acquiring knowledge and modifying associations among the stimuli and responses, largely through a learner's direct interactions with the environment |
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| occurs when automatic and reflexive responses to stimuli become associated with new stimuli that previously had no effect. |
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| stimuli unfamiliar to the body |
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uncontrollable responses by the body
i.e. reflexive blinking |
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| stimulus that consistently evokes a certain response |
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| response consistently evoked by a certain stimuli |
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| occurs as a result of the consequences of behavior. Behaviors that are reinforced are strengthened — they are repeated. Reinforcers can be positive (e.g., presentation of a reward) or negative (e.g., removal of an aversive stimulus). Behaviors that are punished are extinguished; punishments, too can be positive (e.g., presentation of an aversive stimulus) or negative (removal of a positive stimulus). |
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Definition
also called the Social Cognitive Theory
focuses on ways people learn from observing each other
"Monkey See, Monkey Do"
watching & imitating |
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| phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response |
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| demonstrating a behavior for others |
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| Information Processing Theory |
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Definition
conceptions of memory and cognitive processes
was at one time compared to the systematic functions of a computer |
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Definition
| component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time (1 or 2 seconds) |
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| Working/Short Term Memory |
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Definition
| component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information |
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| component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time |
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| knowledge of the meanings of words and word combinations |
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| Knowledge concerning HOW to do something |
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Definition
The sensory register holds the information that our senses bring in from the environment. This unprocessed information is held for a very short time—some estimates are one second for visual images and three seconds for auditory stimulation. If we pay attention to the information, it will be transferred to working memory. If not, it will be lost from the memory system.
Working memory includes a storage and a processing system; its components include the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive. Although researchers once argued that, in general, we can hold 5 to 7 chunks of information in working memory at one time, more recent research suggests that working memory capacity is limited to the amount of information we can rehearse subvocally (i.e., in our heads, not necessarily with conscious awareness) in approximately 3 seconds. In working memory, information is either processed enough that it is stored in long-term memory or it is lost.
Long-term memory supposedly has a limitless capacity and can hold information perhaps indefinitely. Many researchers believe that the more information we have stored on a particular topic, the easier it is to remember new information about that topic. When we store information in long-term memory and are able to retrieve it, we say that we have “learned” that information. Generally, the more deeply we process information in working memory and the more we connect it with what we already know, the more likely we are to move that information into long term memory. |
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| Methods to move information to Long-Term Memory |
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Definition
rehearsal
meaningful learning
elaboration
organization
visual organization
mnemonics |
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| concerned with internal aspects of learning proposes people create knowledge from observations and experiences **social constructivism -- creating this knowledge with 2 or more people** |
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| Top Theorist for Constructivism |
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Definition
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| 3 Basic tenets of knowledge construction |
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Definition
student centered
problem solving
require social and environmental student interaction |
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| information students already know about a topic |
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| an organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment |
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| responding to and possibly interpreting a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme |
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| responding to a new object or event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one |
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| inability to explain new events with existing schemes; tends to be accompanied by a sense of discomfort |
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| state of being able to explain new events with existing schemes |
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Term
| Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development |
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Definition
1. Sensorimotor
2. Preoperational
3. Concrete Operational
4. Formal Operational |
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Term
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Definition
| Piaget's first stage of cognitive development on which schemes are based largely on behaviors and perceptions |
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| Characteristics of sensorimotor stage |
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Definition
*0-2 years*
Cognitive development comes through use of body
no object permanence until later in this stage
productive language absent until end of period
Egocentrism |
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| Educational Implications of the Sensorimotor stage |
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Definition
*0-2 years*
provide multiple objects for stimulation of various shapes, colors, and sizes
allow students to actively engage environmental objects |
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Term
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Definition
| Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which children think about objects beyond their immediate view, but do not yet reason in logical, adult-like ways |
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| Characteristics of Preoperational Stage |
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Definition
*2-7 years*
Begin using symbols but cannot manipulate them
Realism, animism, artificialism, transductive reasoning, centering, ego-centrism, and socialized speech |
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| Educational Implications of Preoperational Stage |
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Definition
*2-7 years*
deferred imitation, symbolic play, drawing, and mental images
encourage the use of language |
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| Concrete Operational Stage |
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Definition
| Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, in which adult-like logic appears but is limited to concrete reality |
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| Characteristics of Concrete Operational Stage |
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Definition
*7-11 years*
can perform mental operations with the use of concrete objects, not verbal statements
conservation, seriation, classification, and number concepts
verbal understanding |
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| Educational Implications for Concrete Operational Stage |
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Definition
*7-11 years*
classification activities
integrated activities that allow students to make connections between ideas previously taught to be separate |
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Definition
| Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as to concrete objects and more sophisticated scientific and mathematical reasoning processes emerge. |
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| Characteristics of Formal Operational Stage |
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Definition
*11+ years*
released from the restrictions of tangible and concrete
may separate the real from the possible
hypothetical/deductive reasoning
development of logical-mathematical structures
language freed from concrete
able to express the possible |
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| Educational Implications of Formal Operational Stage |
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Definition
*11+ years*
challenge, do not frustrate
be aware of adolescent limitations
encourage analysis of information in drawing conclusions |
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Definition
| emphasizes that the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which children grow up have profound influences on thinking, learning, and effective instructional practice |
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Term
| Zone of proximal development |
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Definition
| range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently |
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| Chapter 3, Question 1:Based on what we know about working memory, why is a textbook an important supplement to teacher lectures? Focus on the limited capacity of working memory in your explanation. |
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Definition
A textbook is an important supplement to teacher lectures because the longer that something is being thought about and processed in the working memory, the more chance it has to be committed to long-term memory. From immediate memory to working memory, the longer it stays within the area of the brain that processes information, the more likely it is to be passed on to long-term memory. The other aspect of why a textbook is an important supplement to teacher lectures because even though the working memory is processing information, it still can't hold a large volume of information. Therefore, the textbook supports to reinforce what the teacher has gone over to move it to long term memory so that the student can process the new information in the working memory once the room has been created.
Because working memory has a limited capacity, it is likely that students “miss” some of the presentation. In other words, the information may get into sensory memory but not be processed in the phonological loop because it’s already full. Some information is thus lost. A textbook is useful for students to fill in the gaps, providing additional knowledge to supplement their schemas. It’s also possible that pictures in a text will engage the visuospatial sketchpad component of working memory, whereas lectures may engage only the phonological loop. |
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| Chp. 3 Question 2: Students with good vocabularies have important advantages in listening to lectures over those whose vocabularies are limited. What is one of these advantages? |
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Definition
One of the advantages for students listening to lectures who have larger vocabularies than students who have smaller vocabularies is that they understand more the first time the information is said. This provides opportunity for their brains to move it from immediate to working memory and process it while the students with limited vocabulary are trying to still understand the concept. This also shows why teachers need to introduce the vocabulary at the beginning of the lesson so when they prepare their lectures, they can be sure that all of their students are familiar enough with the vocabulary to understand what is going on in the lecture and in the lesson.
First, many of the word meanings will be automatic for students with good vocabularies, which frees working memory space that can be focused on processing the information in the lecture. Second, language and concepts are linked, so more of the content of the lectures may be meaningful to students with large vocabularies—they will be able to attach the content of the lectures quickly to their already existing schemas. |
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Two high school teachers were discussing their classes. The physics teacher commented, “I'm having a terrible time. The kids seem to understand the problems when I explain them, but they get wrapped up in their algebra when they try to do the problems on their own, so they wind up confused.”
Why are the physics students having difficulty? Include the concept of automaticity in your explanation. |
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Definition
| Too much working memory space is taken up by the algebraic manipulations involved in the problems, as evidenced by the teacher's comment “They get wrapped up in the algebra,” leaving inadequate space for them to process the physics concepts involved. To overcome the difficulty, the algebra skills need to be automatic, so the amount of working memory space they occupy is reduced, leaving more working memory that can be devoted to the physics in the problems. |
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You are introducing a unit on the Far East in your world history class. You present information outlining the impact of religion on life in Japan in the early 20th century, exploitation by the British and other Western nations, the indignation Japan felt after World War I, Japan's overpopulation and scarce natural resources in the 1920s and 1930s, and how all these factors led to Japan's decision to attack the United States. The students seem interested, watching you attentively as you present the information.
However, the next day when you begin your review of the previous day's information, it's as if they hadn't listened after all. Using your understanding of working memory as a basis, explain what may have happened. |
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Definition
First of all, there seemed to be no interaction with the material. Students need to have some kind of interaction with the material presented. Second of all, there was too much information presented. The concept of memory works as follows: there are three parts that researchers use to describe memory. First of all, there is an immediate memory that lasts about 3 seconds. If the concept is not thought about or acknowledged in that 3 seconds, the concept is thrown out of the brain. The second step is the short term or working memory. The short term/working memory processes the information and decides whether or not it is essential to the rest of what is going on. If the process is successful, the brain continues to think about it and, once it is thought about and worked with enough, it is moved to long term memory. If not, it is thrown out. There are many different ways to get information from working memory to long term memory. For example, one of the ways this teacher could have used to move the information from working to long term is to assign each student a paragraph and make them do a hands on activity with the paragraph that they were assigned. If you get the students out of their seats and actively working with the information, you have a much higher success rate getting the information from the working memory to the long term memory.
Consider the processes involved in moving information from working memory to long-term memory. You have introduced a great deal of information in the lesson—religion, exploitation, indignation, overpopulation, scarce natural resources—and how all the details of these factors led to the Japanese attack on the United States. Because the students seemed attentive, it is likely that their working memories were overloaded, and rather than being able to encode the information into long-term memory, it was lost from their working memories. |
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