Rentier state

a.      What: a state dependent on money derived from sources other than taxation for a certain percentage of income. The income received from these sources is called ‘rent’. These rents are normally distributed by the government as patronage to citizens. In MENA most rent comes in the form of oil revenues though some states get rent in the form of assistance from places like the US or in other manners.

b.      Why Important: “No taxation, no representation”; because these states derive their revenue from sources other than the populations it is thought that the people don’t really deserve a voice because they aren’t doing anything for the state. Some argue that when the state is unable to distribute goodies to the population, the population withdrawals its allegiance and that this may have been what happened in Iran, however, this does not explain why other states such as Saudi Arabia did not also have revolutions.

                                                              i.      Some features of Rentier states include

1.      Unproductive Economy

2.      Tendency Toward Corruption (money goes straight to officials who are not held accountable by the people)

c.       Where:  Oil: Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iraq Assistance: Egypt (US)

d.      Other

                                                              i.      247, 288-89

a.      Who: Prime Minister of Turkey and former Mayor of Istanbul. His moderately Islamist AK Party (Justice and Development Party) came to power in the 2002 elections.  He was previously a member of former Prime Minister Erbakan’s Welfare party.

b.      Why Important: During the 1990’s while he was Mayor of Istanbul he was imprisoned for what he said and he was banned from holding political office.  However, once out of prison he built up the AK party. In 2002 the party won the election and was able to establish a one party government even though they only won 34% of the vote. He espouses a state capable of embracing both Democracy and Islam and one of his campaign platforms was to bring Turkey into the EU.  The intellectual elite are scared that he wants to change Turkey into an Islamic state; however, many Turks look to him to bring Turkey closer to Democracy and see him as less corrupt than many ‘secular’ politicians.  As yet the military has not unseated him and though he has not brought everything he has promised, his attempts to get Turkey into the EU have helped Turkey on its path to democracy greatly. He was also brought to power both by country folk and secular city people which indicates a change in thinking and a move away from fear of religion for some Turks.

c.       Where: Turkey

d.      When: AK party won 2002 election; became Prime Minister March 14, 2003

e.      Other

                                                              i.      Cook

1.      101, 104, 126, 128, 130, 139, 181

 Gül

a.      Who: Current President of Turkey (since 2007), former Prime Minister (2002-2003). Former member of the Welfare party and advisor to former PM Erbakan.

b.      Why Important: When PM Erdogan announced his choice for President, many people were unhappy because Gül’s wife wears a head scarf. His election was highly contested and brought into the light the fears many Turks, especially women, have of their country turning away from secularism. Since the military had made their position on Gül’s election clear, many expected Erdogan to withdraw the nomination; however, he did the opposite and showed everyone how popular the AK party was by having another national election. The fact that the military accepted the people’s decision shows a change from their previous position of upholding the countries values in spite of the people.

c.       Where: Turkey

d.      When: Took the office  of the President August 28, 2007

e.      Other:

76, 80-81, 181-82, 

   AK Party

a.      What: The AK Party (Justice and Development Party) is the ruling party in Turkey at the moment, having come to power in the 2002 election. The AK Prime Minister is Erdogan and the President is also a member of the AK party.

b.      Why Important: The party is an ‘Islamist’ Party and is the first since Erbakan’s Welfare Party was disbanded to come to power.  The victory of the party also indicates a change in Turkish perceptions because it was voted to power not only by those from the country, but also by seculars from the city who came to the conclusion that Islam was not the enemy of religion.  The party came to power in 2002 with 34% of the vote and was re-elected in 2007 with 47% of the vote; this makes it the first party to have done better in the second election than it did in the first.  A court case was brought against the party in 2008 for ignoring the secular nature of the country; however, the party was only fined rather than banned.

c.       Where: Turkey

d.      When: Came to power in the 2002 elections, reaffirmed in the 2007 elections

a.      Who: Iranian Shi’ia Ayatollah who is thought of as the leader of the Iranian Revolution. His conception of the Guardianship of the Jurist (Velayat-e Faqih) forms the basis of the clerical rule in Iran. He was the Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 until his death 1989.

                                                              i.      Basic History of Khomeini’s involvement w/ Revolution

1.      After K. voiced his disapproval of the Shah’s White Revolution, he was exiled and ended up in Iraq where he continued to amass a following. After he is kicked out by Saddam (who offered to off him) he went to France where he was able to amass an even larger following.

                                                            ii.      After the Revolution

1.      Consolidated his power ruthlessly by purging the other members of the Revolution such as the leftists and others

2.      People begin to refer to him as Imam (in the sense of the twelve Imams, not imam as in prayer leader)

3.      War with Iraq: Helped Khomeini consolidate his nationalist credentials. Though many people died it ended up consolidating the regime.

b.      Why Important:  During the Revolution Khomeini became the rallying point and even those who disliked him looked to him for leadership (left, business people, etc.). He encouraged this by incorporating more leftist ideas into his rhetoric (i.e. using class differences). After the Revolution he was seen as the “Face of Islam” in the West.  His conception of Velayat-e Faqih forms the basis of governance in Iran, though some clerics have questioned its validity.

c.       Where: Iran (exiled in Iraq and France)

d.      When: born 1902, became the Supreme Leader 1979

e.      Other:

  Khamene'i

a.      Who: Current (2^nd) Supreme Leader of Iran and former President of Iran (81-89)

b.      Why Important: The Supreme Leader is the most powerful position within Iran.  The SL can basically veto anything, has control over foreign policy, and is commander of the armed forces. However there was a crisis of succession in Iran following the death of Khomeini in 1989.  Khamenei does not have the proper religious credentials (he is not even an Ayatollah). Under the second Supreme Leader, there seems to be more of a balance between the SL and Iran’s institutions. On a side note this guy might die soon; who shall replace him?

c.       Where: Iran

d.      When: Born 1939, Supreme Leader since 1989

a.      Who: Former Reformist President of Iran (1997-2005)

b.      Why Important: President Khatami wanted Iran to be ruled under a more democratic formula and during his tenure he tried to bring more democracy, inclusive decision making, rule of law, and freedom of the press to Iran. He also expressed concerns over the system of velayet-e faquih. However, the conservatives in Iran fought back against him and because the Presidency is a fairly weak position in Iran, he lost most of his battles. The reform movement basically fizzled out after some students died in a protest and Khatami’s advisor was shot. However, Khatami is regarded as Iran’s first reformist president and he won by an overwhelming majority in the 1997 election. Because he was unable to bring about change in Iran, many Iranians became disillusioned with him. In the 2004 elections conservatives won 2/3 of the seats (the Guardian Council disqualified many reformists).

c.       Where: Iran

d.      When: President between 1997 and 2005 he also ran for a short time in the 2009 elections

 Ahmedinijad 

a.      Who: Current President of Iran (has been President since 2005)

b.      Why Important: He ran on a populist platform and defeated Rafsanjani who was seen as the moderate option (however he was unable to get the Reformist vote). Ahmedinijad is very conservative and is seen as anti-western and anti-Semitic by the West. The recent elections in 2009 had Ahmedinijad running against the reformist Mousavi; there is wide spread evidence of fraud and Iranians took to the streets to protest the fraudulent elections, however, the protests were put down by the state.

c.       Where: Iran

d.      When: (2005à)

  Velayet-e Faquih

a.      What: The idea of “guardianship of the jurist”. This theory takes the tradition Shi’ia idea that jurists should take care of those who cannot take care of themselves and expands it to the entire community. Khomenini used Shi’ia doctrine which states that only ulama can interpret the Qu’ran to give credence to the idea. However, some Shi’ia clerics disagree, those like Grand Ayatollah Khoi thought velayet-e faquih had no place in government.

b.      Why Important: This idea is the basis of the Iranian constitution. Their rule by jurist is very strong within the country. The Supreme Leader (Currently Ayatollah Khamenei) is the most powerful position in Iran.

c.       Where:  Iran

d.      When: Previously a purely Islamic concept which referred to the guardianship by the clergy of those who were unable to take care of themselves (i.e. orphans, widows, and the insane). Khomeini co-opted the term to describe his guardianship of the jurist as referring to political rule of clergy members. He argued that the term had always meant this and that monarchs had tried to change the term to mean only those unable to care for themselves (he adopted this position only later, earlier Khomeini had been a supporter of the institution of monarchy)

    Guardian Council

a.      What: The Guardian council is a council of twelve jurists which vets candidates before elections, decides on the constitutionality of legislation passed by the Majlis, and interprets the constitution. Six of the jurists are appointed by the Supreme Leader and six are appointed by the Majlis (which can only choose from a pre-determined list of candidates) 

b.      Why Important:  The guardian council is an extremely important and powerful institution in Iran. Its vetoes cannot be overturned by the Majlis and its ability to disqualify candidates has played an important part in the politics of Iran. In the 2004 parliamentary election the GC disqualified many reformist candidates and the conservatives won 2/3 of the seats, the next year they also ensured few reformists ran for president and the extremely conservative Ahmedinijad won.

c.       Where: Iran

d.      When: Institution set up after the Revolution

Council of Experts

a.      What: A council of 86 ulama who are charged with choosing a new Supreme Leader or dismissing the current leader if he is unfit for duty

b.      Why  Important: Though they don’t really have much power otherwise, the Council of Experts will be extremely important when time comes to pick a new Supreme Leader, and guess what, Khamenei is getting up there in years. The Leader of the Council of Experts is former President Hashemi Rafsanjani

c.       Where: Iran

d.      When: Institution set up after the Revolution

  Ayatollah Sistani

a.      Who: Highest Ranking Ayatollah in Iraq (He is a Grand Ayatollah)

b.      Why Important: He is a very important political figure. The United Iraqi Alliance claims him as a mentor and uses his image in their campaigns, though the Ayatollah professes to eschew politics. He is also very influential in the Shi’ia community and in American policy in Iraq. Early on he supported he supported the policy of ‘one man, one vote’ and told his community that it was their religious duty to vote, and women that they should vote even if their husbands forbade them to.  He is able to quell fighting and has told Shi’ia not to take revenge when the Sunni attack them; and even during the bloodiest periods, most Shi’ia have followed him.  Through his actions he has been able to improve the Shi’ia’s lot in Iraq and the Americans have come to regard him as a kind of assent since even though he is not pro-American, he is also not anti-American.

c.       Where: Iraq (originally from Iran)

d.      When: He was a follower of Ayatollah Khoi who died in 1992, but he did not become prominent until after Saddam fell. 

 Muqtada al-Sadr

a.      Who: He is one of the most important political figures in Iraq today; however, he does not have an official position. He comes from an important religious family and much of his support comes from his family (esp. father’s) fame. He is the founder of a militia group in Iraq named the Mahdi Army

b.      Why Important: al-Sadr is an extremely anti-American cleric who advocates getting the Americans out of Iraq and allowing the Iraqis to establish an Islamic state if they so choose. He has his own militia which, ignoring Ayatollah Sistani’s request that the Shi’ia not fight the Americans or the Sunnis has been extremely active.  Recently though, a cease fire has been declared.  He has a large following, especially among residents of Sadr city who rely on some of the social services his organization provides and in southern Iraq (he and SCIRI had turf wars in this area), many members of parliament are also his followers (he had joined with SCIRI and Sistani for the 2005 elections).  He even had quite a bit of power over Nuri al-Maliki the PM for a while before the PM broke with al-Sadr. He represents himself as an Iraqi nationalist and likes to point out the foreign origins of his opponents like Ayatollah Sistani.  His movement, however, lacks coherence and he lacks the religious credentials which would give him more legitimacy and strength.  He hasn’t been seen on the political scene recently and it is thought that he may be studying in Qom in order to beef up his religious credentials.

c.       Where: Iraq

d.      When: NOW!!!! (born approx 1973)

  Nuri al-Maliki

a.      Who: Current Prime Minister of Iraq (since 2006)

b.      Why Important: He is the current Prime Minister of Iraq. He is from the Dawa party and has good credentials as an anti-Saddamist. He emerged as a compromise candidate and was seen as weak and malleable and the United States liked him because he wasn’t seen as very close to Iran. During the first part of his tenure he did tend to bow to sectarian differences and seemed to be beholden to Muqtada al-Sadr, however, he has shown new backbone and in the upcoming election he may try to run under an Iraqi list rather than a Shi’ia list, this seems less and less likely however.

c.       Where: Iraq

d.      When: Came to power in 2006

ISCI (or SCIRI)

a.      What: Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq (previously known as Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq is a political party in Iraq. The current head of this organization is Abdul-Aziz al-Hakim who took over after his elder brother, Baqer, was killed.

b.      Why Important: During the Saddam years the brothers were in exile in Iran where the Revolutionary Guard trained the military wing of the party, the Badr Brigades.  After returning to Iraq the party began to amass support in the south (with the help of Hezbollah and Iran), and the Badr Brigade even became the de facto government in Basra where they implemented many Islamic policies scaring those in Bagdad who feared and Islamic Republic there.  The party advocates creating an autonomous Shi’ia area in the south, similar to autonomous Kurdistan, were the party is very popular.  For the 2005 elections SCIRI joined forces with al-Sadr and Sistaini and did very well.

c.       Where: Iraq (exiled to Iran during the Saddam years)

d.      When: Founded in Iran in 1982.  Political party at the moment

e.      Other

 Badr Brigades

a.      What: The Military Wing of the SCIRI. The Hakim brothers had gone into exile in Iran and their military wing was trained by the Iranian Revolutionary Guard; the brigades fought against Saddam during the Iran-Iraq war.

b.      Why Important: They have been accused of killing and threatening Sunni clerics in response to attacks on Shi’ia and seem to be the most anti-Sunni force in Shi’ia politics at the moment. There have also been bloody clashes between the Saderists and the Badr Brigade

c.       Where: Iraq (exiled to Iran during the Saddam years)

d.      When:

e.      Other

a.      What: Military force of Muqtada al-Sadr

b.      Why Important: Name hails back to the twelfth Imam who went into occultation; it implies that the enemies of the Army are also the enemies of the Imam.  The Army fights both Sunnis and the American Occupation Forces and Sadr’s popularity grew after the Army took on the Americans in 2004

c.       Where: Iraq, esp. Sadr City and Southern Iraq

d.      When

e.      Other

a.      What: Sunni tries in the Anbar and Diyala provinces who have shifted their alliance from al-Qa’ida to the Americans

b.      Why Important: This shift was an extremely important component of the successes America and Iraq have recently found. The tribes are paid and trained by the Americans and the state seems to have been excluded; most tribes see their agreement as long with the Americans and not with the Iraqi government. It is feared that the tribes will not see the agreement as applying to the Iraqis once the Americans leave. It is also feared that the American reliance on the tribe will cement the institution in Iraq at the expense of national identity.

c.       Where: Anbar and Diyala provinces

d.      When: Spring 2007

e.      Other

a.      What: Sunni “Islamic” Terrorist Organization which desires the end of foreign influence in Muslim countries and the re-founding of an Islamic caliphate. Al-Qaida is headed by Osama bin Laden a Saudi whose citizenship has been revoked.

b.      Why Important: According to Gelvin, unlike Hamas and Hezbollah al-Qaida has no ideological program and is more related to the anarchist movements which have again arisen as a result of the fear of the transformation of international systems, death of the welfare state, and fear of unrivaled US power. Al-Qaida is also virulently anti-Shia and is responsible for many Shia deaths.  Prior to the foundation of the Sahwa or Awakening Councils al-Qaida had control of the Sunni provinces of Anbar and Diyala. The leader of al-Qaida in Mesopotamia was Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (died 2006); he used sectarianism to generate violence among Iraqis. The majority of foreign fighters in Iraq come from Saudi Arabia.  The group is also likely responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

c.       Where: Everywhere ß

d.      When: est. 1988

e.      Other:

Sayyid Qutb

a.      Who: Member of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and an influential theorist in Islamism. He was imprisoned and executed by the government of Nasser.

b.      Why Important: He was an influential theorist whose works are very important to the Islamist movement today. He supposedly has greatly influenced Osama bin Laden and other jihadists. He wrote a book called In the Shadow of the Qur’an in which he asked what it took to be a good Muslim. He argued that the Muslim world needed to rid itself of secular regimes which stole the people’s loyalty from God. Believing that the leaders of these regimes are apostates and that they have taken the Muslim world back to the time of Jahiliyyah he says that good Muslims are allowed to use violence to remove them from power.  A group following this doctrine called Takfir wa Hijra assassinated Anwar Sadat in 1981

c.       Where: Egypt (also spent time in the US after which he joined the Brotherhood)

d.      When: (1906-1966)

 Bin Laden

a.      Who: Leader and founder of the al-Qaida terrorist organization

b.      Why Important: Leader and founder of al-Qaida.  Al-Qaida’s stated goals are to implement Islamic revolutions in the Muslim world and end foreign interference. According to Gelvin al-Qaida, unlike Hamas and Hezbollah, does not have a true political agenda beyond jihad and they are more of an anarchic organization than an Islamic one. He says that there are three reasons why anarchism has increased in recent years (last wave was in the late 19^th century) 1. Changing world systems 2. Death of the welfare state 3. Fear of unchecked American power. He has been implicated in the 9/11 terrorist attack and many, many other attacks around the world.  He got his start in the Islamic fundamentalist world during the fight in Afghanistan against the Soviets. In this endeavor the mujahedeen were supported by Saudi Arabia and the United States. After the fighters defeated the Soviets, bin Laden used his network to establish his organization. Osama bin Laden was heavily influenced by the ideas of Sayyid Qutb.

c.       Where: Born in Saudi Arabia in approx 1957. At the moment, unknown. Hopefully in the ground.

d.      When: founded al-Qaida in 1988

e.      Other

a.      Who: Second in Command of the al-Qaida terrorist organization

b.      Why Important: Some describe him as the brains of al Qaida. Like bin Laden he is a follower of Sayyid Qatb. He was also the leader (or founder) of Egyptian Islamic Jihad which merged with al-Qaida in approximately 1998. (found on the FBI most wanted poster

c.       Where: born in Egypt

d.      When: born in 1951

a.      Who: Current President of Algeria (since 1999)

b.      Why Important:  At the point of his election he was thought of as the military’s candidate and during the election the six other candidates he was running against dropped out of the race the night before the election, most likely because they knew that the military would not allow them to win and they did not want to be party to lending Bouteflika legitimacy. He got amnesty for those Islamic fighters who had not spilt blood, committed rape or used explosives in public; this split the FIS from their military wing. The same piece of legislation also bans any party exploiting religion for political gain. After the 2004 election in which Bouteflicka won about 85% of a relatively free election (according to European observers, however Stephen Cook is unsure about the openness of the election) he was able to establish some distance between himself and the military; demonstrating his power by reshuffling the military command after the retirement of the chief of staff.  By doing this he is trying to create a group of officers who are personally loyal to him so he can carry out a program of reform.  During his second term he got a constitutional amendment passed allowing him to run for a third term which he won in 2009.

c.       Where: Algeria

d.      When: Has been President since 1999

e.      Other

    FLN

a.      What: Front de liberation national or National Liberation Front is a political party in Algeria which fought a bloody war for independence against France between 1954 and 1962. Its leaders include Ahmed Ben-Bella and Mohammad Boudief.

b.      Why Important: Algeria was under FLN one party rule between 1962 and 1989. During this period the Algerian military played a large role in politics and the FLN relied on its nationalist credentials (which it had earned during the war for independence) to retain control. However, as time went on the FLN came to embody corruption in the government and the Algerian people lobbied for a pluralistic political system. In the 1989 constitution the hegemony of the FLN was ended and Algerians were allowed to create political parties, however, when the military saw that the FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) was slated to win, the military canceled the election. The attempt to legitimize the regime through liberalization backfired.  Today Algeria has a pluralistic system, though the military still plays an expanded role. The FLN’s power has waxed and waned, at one point it was even an opposition party, however, today, the party is the largest party in Algeria and is the party of the President.

c.       Where: Algeria

d.      When: Fought for independence between 54 and 69

e.      Other

FIS

a.      What: Front Islamique du Salut or Islamic Salvation Front

b.      Why Important: Opposition party to the FLN during the first era of pluralism between 1989 and 1991. Political parties had been made legal by the 1989 constitution and this Islamic party was one of the more popular parties. The Algerian army had implemented these changes in order to give the regime the façade of democracy and legitimacy; however the FIS utilized the democratic principles which had been put in place to its own advantage.  When the military saw that the FIS was on its way to a victory in the 1991 elections, it canceled them; this set off the violence which was to last a greater part of the decade and take the lives of between 100,000 and 200,000 Algerians.  When President Bouteflika granted amnesty to fighters the FIS was separated from its military component; the 2006 legislation also outlawed the FIS.

c.       Where: Algeria

d.      When: Founded in 1989

October 1988 uprising

a.      What: Riots in 1988 by angry youth driven to action by the stagnate economy (which had been affected by the dropping price of hydrocarbons) and political system and food shortages. The riots led to the constitutional change in 1989 which allowed a pluralistic system. This in turn led to the violence of the 1990’s.

b.      Why Important: These riots incited President Chadli Bendjedid to reform the political system and allow a multiparty system to blossom in Algeria. The strange electoral system Algeria had at the time then ensured that the party which got the most votes would have an inflated number of seats (winner take all). It then became apparent that the FIS would be that party (rather than a split between the FLN and the FIS or an FLN victory). The military then moved decisively to cancel the 1991 elections. The canceled elections incited the violence of the 90’s which stole the lives of between 100,000 and 200,000 Algerians.

c.       Where: Algeria

d.      When: 1988

e.      Other

a.      Who: Prime Minister of Israel from 1999 to 2001 (member of the Labor party)

b.      Why Important: He defeated the Likud party and Netanyahu in the 1999 elections.  He was a general and he was seen as the successor to Rabin, however, he was politically naïve and lacked the political clout Rabin had. He tried to focus on finding peace with Syria and in that peace a withdrawal from Lebanon. The Sheperdstown talks seemed to be going well, especially since some of the parties involved were racing against the clock. However, a draft of the agreement was leaked, possibly by someone in Barak’s government in order to ‘test the waters’. This hurt the talks by embarrassing and infuriating al-Assad and later talks dissolved completely (also remember Geneva and Clinton and the June 4^th , if forgotten -- 209).  Later Israel unilaterally withdrew from Lebanon; this resulted in the view that Hezbollah had defeated Israel.  During this period the second Intifada erupted and aligned Arab leaders against Israel in a replay of the hey-day of the conflict.  The effect of this disaster of a premiership brought Likud and Ariel Sharon to power.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: Prime Minister from 1999-2001

e.      Other

a.      Who: Prime Minster between 2006 and 2009 (Kadima)

b.      Why Important: Took over after Ariel Sharon had a stroke. However He had to deal with the electoral victory of Hamas in Gaza and he faced a war on two fronts as Hamas kidnapped one Israeli soldier and Hezbollah kidnapped two more. After the Hezbollah kidnapping (2006) Israel and Hezbollah continued to clash resulting in the death of 159 Israelis and 1,070 Lebanese (this was a reminder of the 1982 war with Lebanon).  This encounter weakened the Olmert government which then could not engage in further withdrawal from the West bank.  In 2008 the cease fire agreement between Hamas and Israel fell apart leading to the poorly handled Israel-Gaza conflict. Olmert left office under indictment for corruption.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: Prime Minister between 2006 and 2009

e.      Other

a.      Who: Prime Minister between 1992 and 1995 (when he was assassinated)

b.      Why Important: Leader of the Labor party which defeated the Likud government under Yitzhak Shamir.  He presided over the Oslo Accords of 1993 which recognized the Palestinians as a party in the conflict and which promised them some control over the occupied territories. The unstated implication of the accords was that a Palestinian state should be established.  In 1995 he was assassinated by a rightist religious fanatic. He was replaced by Shimon Peres.  Soon after the assassination another election was held which brought Likud and the right back to power.  Also known as the General of Peace.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: Prime Minister between 1992 and 1995 (assassinated) and between 1974 and 1977

a.      Prime  Minister between 1995 and 1996 after the death of Rabin

b.      Why Important: Peres tried to continue the Peace process begun by Rabin, especially concentrating on the Syrians.  However, Hamas carried out bombings which were not condemned by President al-Assad, thereby derailing the peace process. After this derailment Hezbollah also started to ramp up its activities.  In response to this Peres commenced a military operation (Operation Grapes of Wrath) against Lebanon which turned into a public relations nightmare as over 400,000 Lebanese were displaced and over a hundred civilians were accidentally killed.  In the elections Peres had called early he lost to Netanyahu.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: Prime Minister between 1995 and 1996

a.      Who: Current leader of the Kadima Party

b.      Why Important: She is an extremely popular political leader and has become the main voice behind a two state solution. After Olmert stepped down as the leader of the Kadima party, she won the party elections by a narrow margin. In the 2009 election the Kadima party won one more seat than Likud giving it the majority in the Knesset, however, since Livni was not able to form a coalition, Likud was asked to form a government. It was the first time in Israeli history that a party which had won fewer seats was asked to form a government.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: She became head of the Kadima party in 2008

e.      Other

a.      Who: Prime Minister between 2001 and 2005

b.      Why Important: During the tenure of Ehud Barak he played a huge role in the disintegration of the peace process and played a part in the events leading to the Second Intifada. He was elected Prime Minister in 2001, easily defeating Barak.  Though a member of Likud he moved his government to the center and in 2002 he indicated he supported a two state solution and later withdrew IDF forces  and Israeli settlements from the Gaza Strip and removed four settlements from the West Bank. In 2005 he left the Likud party and established Kadima.  Also in 2005 Sharon suffered a stroke and today remains in a vegetative state.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: Prime Minister between 2001 and 2005

e.      Other

a.      Who: Current Prime Minister (since 2009) and Prime Minister of Israel between 1996 and 1999

b.      Why Important: During his first tenure he was much less open to the peace process that had been initiated by Yitzhak Rabin than his predecessors. Once reaching office he significantly slowed the processes and did other things to undermine peace with the Palestinians.  The Wye River Accords, during which nothing was really accomplished, occurred in 1998.  Under his government relations with other Arab states such as Egypt and Jordan also deteriorated. Peleg argues that though Netanyahu seemed incompetent, his policies were consistent with his political ideology and he succeeded in doing what he wanted to do. Under Netanyahu settlements in the West Bank continue (though at a reduced pace). Once of the Palestinian's preconditions is that all growth in the West Bank end.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: Prime Minister between 1996 and 1999

e.      Other

a.       What: The Rightist party in Israeli

b.      Why Important: This party is the heir to the extreme rightist party of Begin (Herut [it had combined with a more liberal party earlier to form GAHAL, but maintained its ideology remained the same]) and the ideologies of Jabontinsky. In 1977 (the electoral revolution) Likud won the election and ended the dominance of the Labor party.  The party has a history of few compromises. It is the traditional hard-line security and peace party, some of its more notable members not willing to settle for less than ersatz Israel which includes the West Bank

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: Formed in 1973

e.      Other

a.      What: Political Party founded by Ariel Sharon in 2005 as a more centrist party

b.      Why Important: Signifies the end of the traditional Left-Right division in Israeli politics and today we see a blurring of traditional lines. Also tries to be hard on security, but also wants to withdraw from the occupied territories.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: founded in 2005

e.      Other

1.      Labor (Return)

a.      What: The more liberal party in Israel

b.      Why Important: Israel was basically a one party system under this party as it was the traditional party of Ben Gurion and other founding fathers. In the 1977 electoral revolution Labor lost its majority to the rightist party, Likud. Labor has had its ups and downs, at them moment it is out of power and while Kadima was in power it was a junior partner.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: 1968 (?)

e.      Other

a.      Who:  Prime Minister of Israel between 1977-1983

b.      Why Important: Prime Minister after the electoral revolution. His biggest blunder during his tenure was the 1982 Lebanon war.  They had decided to go to war in order to eradicate the PLO in Lebanon. However, this just increased the PLO’s resistance and increased their prestige, hurt Israeli’s world image, and polarized the Israeli public and Israeli Lebanese relations.  Begin resigned in 1983 and completely withdrew from public life. His most impressive accomplishment during his tenure was the 1979 peace agreement he signed with Egypt's Anwar el-Sadat.

c.       Where: Israel

d.      When: PM from 1977 to 1983

e.      Other

      Democracy

a.      What: Type of governance which is rule of the majority; normally carried out through a voting system in which the people express their desires. The voting system must be carried out on a regular basis (so people can change their minds) and must

b.      Why Important: The Middle East has only one fully functioning democracy, Israel. However Turkey is on its way.  Democracy is a way to provide legitimacy to the government. Because everyone gets a say in how the government is run, the government gets authority from the people. In the Middle East democratic façades are used in order to give the regime some form of legitimacy (Egypt, Syria).  It is thought that rentier states have less of an incentive to move to democracy because they do not need to extract taxes from their populace and therefore the people don’t have a “right” to have a voice in government and the populace, as long as they continue to get goodies, are normally more acquiescent than others may be (Saudi Arabia and Shah’s Iran). Taxation is an expectation of representation.  There are two different schools of thought with regard to Democracy; the Anglo American model and the European Model. The Anglo-American model is more concerned with the process of democracy (i.e. were the elections fair, competitive and rule based) and the European Model is more concerned with the outcome (does the government promote freedom and justice?)

c.       Where: fully functioning in Israel and Turkey is turning to democracy

d.      When: Israel was established in 1948 and Turkey has been democratizing since early 2000’s and Lebanon is fairly democratic.

e.      Other

 Democratization

a.      What: Transition to a more Democratic Political Regime (moving from authoritarianism to democracy)

b.      Why Important: This is happening in Turkey because the country wants to join the elite club of Europe. Prime Minister Erdogan has been an important part of this process. Turkey still has a long way to go though.  In other countries democratization is seen as a weakening process. Many countries claim that they need to work on economic reforms with a strong state before turning to political reforms (following the Chinese model); this also seems to be the argument of Waldner who points to Korea and Taiwan as healthy economic states which did not include the populace in the political arena until economic reforms were carried out.  The measure of whether a country is democratizing is the percentage of people included in the vote (more suffrage = further down the road to democracy and a large number of issues put before the electorate (more issues = more democracy)

c.       Where: Turkey

d.      When: Early 2000’s to now

e.      Other

   Liberalization

a.      What: A movement by a government away from authoritarianism and towards a more open society; a relaxation of government restrictions.

b.      Why Important: In the Middle-East, a drop in oil prices can have the effect of liberalizing a rentier state. Because the state can no longer distribute goodies, and this change creates a tension between the people and the government, the government may loosen restrictions in order to take some of the pressure off of itself. The government might also allow companies to privatize in bad economic times.  Many scholars also argue the improvement and liberalization of the economy is a precursor to democracy.  Most countries in the MENA region are under pressure to liberalize, however, they are fearful to do so (Algeria’s liberation did not turn out so well)

c.       Where:

d.      When

e.      Other

 Consociational Democracy

a.      What: Democracy that is built around the differences of sectarian ethnic sects

b.      Why Important: This is designed to ensure that no one feels left out of the political process; it is typically used in deeply divided societies. In Lebanon the President must be a Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shiia.  These societies are representative, but then sectarian-ethnic differences become entrenched and it hard to move away from these divisions.  Iraq seems to be moving in this direction; after the American invasion they focused on sectarian differences when forming the government, however it is too soon to tell. Nuri al-Maliki may run on a secular “Iraq” Iist, but this seems less and less likely.

c.       Where: Lebanon and possibly Iraq

d.      When

e.      Other

Civil Society

a.      What: Organizations which function independently of the state and work for their own interest

b.      Why Important: These groups are generally a force for democratization against authoritarian regimes. The groups attempt to articulate their own values and advance their own interests. However, Cook argues that though MENA states may have a large group of civil society organizations, these groups have cooperated with the state primarily because these groups are still reliant on the state for patronage. Cook also argues that the US focus on civil society as a harbinger of democracy is misplaced.

c.       Where

d.      When

e.      Other

 Proportional Representation vs. Winner Take All electoral systems

a.      What: Proportional Representation: In this system the number of seats will correlate to the actual number of votes given; this might be better for deeply divided societies because, invariably, someone is going to get slighted in a winner take all system. This system also encourages people to vote in general and for smaller parties specifically. However, these systems also have the problem of fragmentation which leads to a weaker government ------- Winner Take All: This system exaggerates the power of the party that can get just over the majority line

b.      Why Important: Proportional Representation ------- Winner Take All: This system tends to be a bad choice in societies that are deeply divided. This system also discourages people from voting for smaller parties which have no chance of winning (similar to the American system in that respect)

c.       Where: Proportional: Israel Winner Take All: Algeria in the 1991 elections and Palestine in the 2006 elections

d.      When

e.      Other

 Sectarianism

a.      What

b.      Why Important

c.       Where

d.      When

e.      Other

Ethnicity

a.      What

b.      Why Important

c.       Where

d.      When

  March 14 movement

a.      What: Broad coalition of political parties in Lebanon which has the largest number of seats in parliament.

b.      Why Important: The movement is named after a large anti-Syrian rally in 2005 which was the climax of a series of rallies which had been sparked by the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri possibly on Syrian orders. One of the major themes in the movement is the desire to end Syrian influence in Lebanon. The movement has attracted many Christians (the others normally end up supporting Hezbollah) and Sunnis. One of the major players in the movement is Sayyid Hariri, the current Prime Minister of Lebanon, the son of the assassinated minister.

c.       Where: Lebanon

d.      When: formed in 2005

e.      Other

  Rafiq Hariri

a.      Who: Former Prime Minister of Lebanon; assassinated in 2005

b.      Why Important: Hariri’s death, which may have been ordered by the Syrians, set off anti-Syrian riots and protest in Lebanon (known as the Cedar Rebellion) which ultimately led to the withdrawal of Syrian troops.

c.       Where: Lebanon

d.      When: Assassinated in 2005; Prime Minister between 1992 and 1998 and again between 2000 and 2004

e.      Other

 Hafiz al-Assad

a.      Who: Former President of Syria from between 1971 to 2000 (when he died) he was succeeded by his son Bashar

b.      Why Important: al-Assad has played a huge role in Arab politics since he came to power in the Corrective Revolution (an intra-party coup) of 1970. He is a member of the Ba’athist party; however his relations with Ba’athist Iraq were very strained. Under al-Assad Syria became even more of an authoritarian state and eventually, to increase his own power and prestige, al-Assad became the center of an impressive cult of personality; at one point he even made citizens sign loyalty contracts in blood (this came after his brother Rifaat’s 1984 attempt to seize power).  During the later part of al-Assad’s reign (during the 1990’s) Syria entered into talks with Israel (starting under the government of Rabin), however they repeatedly broke down.  Talks broke down under Peres’ government (remember al-Assad did not condemn terrorist attacks) and Barak’s government (remember the leak of the draft; Shepardstown).  Assad died soon after the talks broke down for the last time and his son Bashar has not shown a great interest in getting his feet wet international politics yet, though there are indications talks may have restarted with Turkey as a mediator.  Syria also participated in the Gulf War against Iraq under al-Assad and greatly improved its position in the international community.

c.       Where: Syria

d.      When: Ruled Syria between 1971 and 2000

e.      Other

Bachar al-Assad

a.      Who: Current President of Syria; took over from his father in 2000 after he died

b.      Why Important: Once Bachar took over in 2000 it was thought that Syria might liberalize slightly and Syria did, in fact, experience the so called Damascus Spring; however, the regime has since cracked down and it does not seem like Bachar is looking to liberalize any time soon.  In regards to Israel, it is possible that tentative talks have restarted. In 2008 it was reported that talks with Israel had restarted with Turkey as a mediator.  Note: Bachar had not been groomed by his father to take power, that distinction belongs to Bachar’s late brother, however after the 1994 car accident which killed Basil, Bachar was slated to take over the reins after Hafiz passed on.  Syria uses a divided system when dealing with the opposition.

c.       Where: Syria

d.      When: Bachar al-Assad rose to power in 2000

e.      Other

a.      What: Party in the Arab world which has influence in many countries

b.      Why Important: The party was founded by Syrian-Christian intellectual Michel ‘Aflaq and Sunni-Syrian Salah al-Din al-Bitar who believed in the concept of an “indivisible Arab nation” that had been forcibly divided by colonialism and imperialism. This party advocates Nationalism, pan-Arab nationalism, and socialistic policies as well as secular government and is willing to implement its policies through violent means; however, Michel ‘Aflaq was also a proponent of democracy. The party’s slogan is “Unity, Freedom, and Socialism”.  The party carried out two coups in 1963 which brought it to power in Iraq and Syria (though Iraq’s Ba’athist leaders were later deposed and they only again regained power in 1968).  Saddam was a Ba’athist leader; however, he was not shy about changing Ba’athist doctrine to suit his own needs. For example, he raised the position of the Iraqi state over that of the Arab state, which has primacy in Ba’athist doctrine. Hafiz al-Assad was another Ba’athist leader… something, something, something…

c.       Where: Syria and formerly Iraq (has branches in many countries, though none have ever come to power)

d.      When: Founded in 1930; came to power in Syria and Iraq in 1963, later deposed in Iraq but returned to power in 1968

e.      Other

a.      Who: Former President of Iraq from 1979 to 2003

b.      Why Important: Saddam Hussein functioned basically as a dictator once he took power. He was not shy about showing the power of the state and he used force when necessary to assert control. In 1980 after the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Iraq tried to invade Iran primarily in order to get the oil rich area in the north of the country called Khūzestān as well as to prevent the spread of the Islamic Revolution.  Saddam believe Iran to be on unstable ground after the revolution and believe this would be the best time to strike.  The war raged until 1988 and resulted in tremendous losses for each country. It was during this period that Saddam committed many of his atrocities against his Shiia population. This included dropping Shiites at the Iran-Iraq border and massacring large numbers of them. In 1990 Saddam invaded Kuwait, however he was repelled by the first Bush administration’s coalition which included Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Egypt. The combined forces quickly defeated Saddam’s forces, however, the Bush administration decided not to go into Iraq to depose Saddam. After this he was able to catch his breath and consolidate his position in Iraq, however in 1992 the Kurdish area in the North split and formed an autonomous area (still officially part of Iraq). In 2003 a US-led coalition deposed Saddam after linking his regime to terrorism and claiming he had WMD’s. No concrete evidence of either claim has been found. Saddam Hussein was executed in 2006 for crimes against his people and war crimes during his invasion of Kuwait.

c.       Where: Iraq

d.      When: Saddam was President between 1979 and 2003

e.      Other

  Anwar Sadat

a.      Who: Former President of Egypt (assassinated) serving between 1970 and 1981

b.      Why Important: Sadat succeeded Nassir as President and took the country in a new direction once attaining power. His credentials as a Free Officer and close confidant of Nassir were impressive; I have no idea if this helped him or not. His most notable achievements are his strong showing in the 1973 Yom Kippur War (which made him a hero in the Arab world), institution of a multi-party system, and reaching a peace agreement with Israel’s Menachem Begnin (Likud) Israel in 1979; however, the Israeli peace agreement hurt his position both within Egypt and the Arab world and Egypt was suspended from the Arab League after the treaty. Sadat also tried to privatize some of Egypt’s economy and encourage foreign investment (called infitah or open door); however, the policy sparked riots when the government tried to end food subsidies in 1977.  He was assassinated in 1981.

c.       Where: Egypt

d.      When: He rose to power in 1970 and was assassinated out of office in 1981

e.      Other

Husni Mubarak

a.      Who: Current President of Egypt since 1981

b.      Why Important: He served as Anwar Sadat’s Vice President and after Sadat was assassinated he took over the job (though there was an Acting President who ruled for eight days); he has been president ever since.  Cook argues that Mubarak was chosen as Sadat’s successor because he was a military man (air force) and Sadat wanted to show that he was thinking of the military’s interests.  Mubarak has pursued economic reforms, but not political ones.  His economic reforms include cutting down on the role of the public sector. On the political side, Mubarak instituted changes in the system for the 2005 Presidential elections which was the first “contested” election in Egypt’s history. However, this was only a democratic façade used to give Mubarak legitimacy and appease foreigners lobbying for a new system. Mubarak got 88% of the vote.  He uses a divided system with the opposition in his country.  It is widely rumored in Egypt that his son will be taking over from him.

c.       Where: Egypt

d.      When: President since 1981 

National Democratic Party

a.      What: Political Party in Egypt founded in 1978

b.      Why Important: Basically the single Ruling Party of Egypt and the party of the President. Though in 1977 Egypt technically established the right to form opposition parties, these parties are severely restricted and the NDP remains in power while the other parties provide democratic legitimacy.  The party has the majority of seats in Parliament currently; however they are accompanied by an expanded group of opposition members, especially Muslim Brethren running as independents.

c.       Where: Egypt

d.      When: Founded 1978 by Anwar Sadat

  Yasir Arafat

a.      Who: First President of the Palestinian National Authority, Former Chairman of the PLO and leader and founding member of Fatah political party.

b.      Why Important: Arafat fought for a Palestinian state and become one of the most highly regarded figures in the Palestinian and Arab world while becoming hated in Western and Israeli circles.  Early in his career he was opposed to Israel’s existence, however, later he involved himself in the peace process and participated in the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords, and the 2000 Camp David Summit. He received the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize for his work on the Oslo accords (with Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres). History:  Arafat believed, unlike many other Palestinian liberation organizations, that the Palestinians needs to liberate themselves rather than relying on other counties.  After the 1967 war during which the Arab states were soundly defeated, many sponsored liberation organizations crumbled and Arafat was able to come to the fore of the liberation movement.  After the battle of Karameh, Arafat’s face was brought to the world, he became the head of the PLO, and Fatah got a major popularity boost (They feel they won the battle). Arafat operated in many countries including Jordan and Lebanon and got involved in their internal politics; in Lebanon the PLO became like a state within a state. During the 70’s the PLO got involved in terrorist activities outside of the West Bank and Gaza Strip and during this period and the 80’s the PLO and Fatah were greatly weakened. However, during the 90’s the PLO and Fatah re-emerged and Arafat engaged in peace activities with Israel, though from a severely weakened position as Arafat hat supported Saddam in the Gulf War and hurt his position in the West and in the Gulf states. Arafat died in 2004.

c.       Where: Palestine/  Israel (also based in other Middle Easter countries at various points including Jordan, Lebanon)

d.      When: President of Palestinian National Authority between 1996 and 2004; Chairman of the PLO between 1969 and 2004; died 2004

e.      Other

Mahmud Abbas (Abu Mazin)

a.      Who: Current President of the Palestinian National Authority since 2005 and Current Chairman of the PLO since 2004

b.      Why Important: Has refused to negotiate with Prime Minister Netanyahu until all Israeli settlements and growth within Palestinian territory.  At the moment there is a conflict with Hamas which has won control of the Gaza strip through elections in 2006.  Abbas dismissed the Hamas government in 2007 and since then there have been parallel governments in the West Bank and Gaza.  Though Abbas was supposed to step down and has hinted that he will quit soon, it does not seem like that will happen anytime soon since the Palestinian polity is divided and Hamas has refused to hold new elections.

c.       Where: Palestine/ Israel

d.      When: President of PNA since 2005 and PLO since 2004

e.      Other

Fatah

a.      What: Palestinian Political party which was founded by Yasir Arafat

b.      Why Important: Believes that Palestinians need to liberate themselves rather than relying on other Arab states for liberation.  Since the Six-Day War (1967) Fatah has been the dominate party in Palestinian politics and jointed the PLO the same year; it was immediately awarded 33 of the 105 seats , however, in the 2006 elections Fatah lost its majority to Hamas; it is thought that Fatah lost to Hamas because of the perceived corruption and incompetence of the party.  Hamas and Fatah tried to implement a coalition, however, it failed and Hamas and Fatah have set up separate governments. Hamas in the Gaza Strip and Fatah in the West Bank.  Fatah is also internally torn at the moment.

c.       Where: Palestine/ Israel (esp. West Bank)

d.      When: Founded approx. 1954

e.      Other

PLO

a.      What: Palestine Liberation Organization à Dedicated to the Liberation of Palestine; it is an organizing council made up Palestinian organizations

b.      Why Important: It was founded by the Arab League in 1964 and has played a major part in Palestinian politics ever since. In 1974 the PLO received recognition from the UN as the representative group for Palestinians (It has enjoyed observer status ever since) and in 1976 the PLO gained membership in the Arab League.  In 1993 the Oslo Accords were brokered which provided for mutual recognition and some autonomy for the Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza.

c.       Where: Palestine/ Israel

d.      When: Founded in 1964

e.      Other

Hamas

a.      What: One of the Two Major Political Parties in Palestine

b.      Why Important: Hamas is the more radical party in Palestine (as compared to Hamas) and refuses to believe that Israel has a right to exist; though recently the organization has stated that it will accept boundaries based on the 1967 lines. In 2006 Hamas won the parliamentary elections in the PNA, defeating majority party Fatah. After this the two parties tried to form a coalition government, however, the effort failed. President Abbas (Fatah) dismissed the Hamas government in 2007. Hamas has de facto control over the Gaza Strip and has had military encounters with Israel in the area. It is thought that Hamas won the Parliamentary elections both because Palestinians were fed up with the corruption and incompetence they perceived in Fatah and because of the electoral system the PNA decided on; Hamas is also dedicated to providing social aid and functions to Palestinians. Hamas is designated as a terrorist organization by the United States and has its own militia force known as the al-Qassim Brigades.

c.       Where: Palestine/ Israel (esp.  Gaza Strip)

d.      When: Founded 1987; won parliamentary elections in 2006

e.      Other

Khaled Mishaal

a.      Who: The Leader in exile of Hamas (works out of Damascus)

b.      Why Important: He is one of the highest ranking figures in Hamas and heads the political wing of the organization. In 1997 he was the target of an Israeli assassination attempt, however, the resulting diplomatic crisis Israel was forced to administer the antidote. In a recent interview, Mishaal stated that Hamas is willing to agree to a two-state solution along the 1967 lines, but that they are not willing to recognize Israel. Mishaal is currently involved in negotiations with Israel over the fate of Gilad Shalit an Israeli soldier who was captured by Hamas in 2006.

c.       Where: Damascus (currently) also Palestine/ Israel

d.      When: Chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau since 1996

e.      Other

Hizbollah

a.      What: Shiia Political and Military organization

b.      Why Important: Hezbollah was founded in response to the 1982 invasion of Lebanon by Israel.  Hezbollah provides service functions for the Shiia residents of Lebanon and is popularly known as the only organization which has defeated Israel. They are a recognized entity in Lebanon, hold seats in the Parliament and Cabinet, and have the right to remain armed in order to liberate the land Lebanon says Israel still occupies. It also has de facto control of southern Lebanon and one of its main goals is to establish an Islamist regime.  The group has strong ties with Syrian and Iran.  Hezbollah also participated in the Second Lebanon War. In 2006 Hezbollah kidnapped two Israeli soldiers and Israel invaded Lebanon in response; over 1,200 Lebanese civilians were killed and about 128 Israeli soldiers were killed in the fighting.  Though the group has enjoyed high popularity in past years since tensions erupted with the government and civilians were caught in the cross-fire, Hezbollah’s popularity has decreased.

c.       Where: Lebanon

d.      When: Founded approx. 1982

e.      Other

a.      Who: Hezbollah’s senior political leader also known as the Secretary General – Since 1992

b.      Why Important: Nazrallah has become an extremely popular figure in Lebanon; though he does not hold any political office he is seen as ‘higher’ than the government.  When Israel withdrew from Lebanon after 18 years of occupation, Hassan Nazrallah was given most of the credit and in 2004 when he organized a prisoner exchange with Israel his popularity again increased.

c.       Where: Lebanon

d.      When: Has been the Secretary General of Hezbollah since 1992

e.      Other

Precocious Keynesianism

a.      What: Concept developed by David Waldner which refers to a pattern of state building

b.      Why Important: Waldner says that Precocious Keynesian states developed in Turkey and Syria as opposed to developmental states which arose in Korea and Taiwan.  Waldner says Precocious Keynesian states are those which construct a broad cross-class coalition that transform states from mediated to unmediated structures and comes in the early stages of industrial development (as opposed following industrial development such as Keynesianism would refer to). Waldner believes that the point at which the popular sector affects the economic well-being of the state. In Turkey and Syria, the elites were divided and therefore had to rely on the populace to give them power. In Korea and Taiwan the elites were unified and therefore had enough wherewithal to endure while setting up the economic policies of the state.  The elite’s trade rapid economic growth for political stability.

c.       Where: Turkey and Syria

d.      When: Syria from 1963 to 1980 and Turkey from 1950 to 1980

e.      Other