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associated with Plato and The Republic; literally means "lover of opinion", doxa can also mean untruth; they are the opposite of philosophers; they appear to have knowledge, but in reality they do not love it, and use whatever opinion they can muster to get their way. similar to the act vs. knack argument. Plato actually mimicks the debates of his time in the republic by including Thrasymachus. this should also contrast with episteme (knowledge) |
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written by Plato, uses Socrates as a character; a dialogue attempting to answer: what is justice? -justice is the primary end of political life -argues that political society should be organized to maximize justice - is a dialogue because it is more of a texture with the human experience -shows the ongoing search for the truth of reality -details human nature (ordered souls) -details the polis and the best regime to maxmize justice and happiness |
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| “The Good” (agathon) (summum bonum) |
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coined by Plato in the Republic summum bonum=the highest good -there is a war in the soul, between long term and short term happiness and one must have virtue to know that long term happiness is more valuable. one who understands this is an ordered soul. -having an ordered soul allows for justice to be more readily achieved, and thus allows the individual to to reach the agathon -virtue depends on moderation -political society reflects the ordered soul; this means that a political society, in order to have justice, it must have an ordered soul -a good man, living the agathon, is ready for action "a law unto himself" (philosopher king) |
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goes for all eras -the life of virtue is the life of philosophy -In Apology, Plato uses Socrates to challenge the political rulers of Athens by saying that since the life of philosophy is the virtuous life, then their authority is lessened since they aren't virtuous. -specific virtues are wisdom and prudence -the task of political leadership, and thus the philosopher king, is to lead the people to a life of virtue. -Plato justifies this in the Republic by saying reality is structured (ordered souls), and societies ruled by P.K.s are more likely to lead people to virtuous lives, and thus to the Agathon -this comes up again when Aristotle makes the distinction between the good life and mere living: man has reason, and is thus able to determine what is the good life by perceiving what is just and unjust, which is what separates us from beasts. |
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Ancient Greeks-literally means "city" -in the Republic, Socrates begins his search for justice by looking at the city -since the polis is natural , the polis can be studied from its early form to mature forms -polis formed because of humanity's inherent social nature -the polis is divided into classes; in Socrates/Plato's ideal polis (kallipolis) it is divied into four classes: philosopher kings, guardians, artisans, servants -classes not determined by birth, but by merit (Myth of the Metals) -these are natural classes, reflecting the ordered soul of the individual - a good city (kallipolis) would be just and lead its citizens to virtue and the agathon |
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Ancient Greece, under Plato, found in the Republic -guardians preserve and protect the polis -the polis is concerned with the spiritual development of the guardians; must moderate, wise, and just -guardians would live in communes where everything was shared, so that they would not be tempted by selfish desires; would associate individual good with common good -this class, and the other classes, reflect the hierarchical view of human nature -would oversee education of the citizenry -class membership determined by the intrinsic nature of the person (myth of the metals) |
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Plato, Aristotle, Augustine (all) -must not be treated abstractly -any definition of it must take into consideration its circumstances -according to Plato, justice is naturally occuring, and in the polis, it is a condition of harmony and order -justice is that which leads to the good life -the question of justice leads to Plato's class system, the philosopher kings, the agathon -justice then requires reason, and therefore philosophers are the best at using reason, so they must lead -Aristotle believes that justice is what promotes the common interests -the polity (oligarchic and democracy) is the best regime for justice, because each class checks the other as to their common interest -Aristotles harmony is that which is accepted by the various classes -augustine believed that justice is the equal distribution, and since everything belongs to God, and only in the city of God is justice possible |
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idea of Plato, from the Republic -the PK is an educator attempting to elicit and sustain the life of moral virtue-to nurture humanity -the PKs interest is justice, and happiness for the polis -the soul requires the skills of a philosopher -like guardians, PKs live in the commune -the PK is a man who would do justice with Gyges Ring -a man of action -no checks on PKs power -philosophers forced into politics -Plato suggests that this kind of regime could never exist in reality |
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-means knowledge, or truth -one who has philosophical knowledge has the right to rule (the PK)
-contrasted with doxa, or opinion -object of our deepest knowledge is the metaphysical reality -there are two elements of knowledge, thought and dialectic, which respectively, are aware of and interact with the realm of the intelligible (half of reality-is the metaphysical reality) -knowledge therefore is not mere knowing of facts, but of penetrating being itself -knowledge adds to our awareness of reality -gaining knowledge therefore adds to our happiness, and to justice -example is the allegory of the cave |
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Plato -opinion is a form of awareness of a relatively impoversished level of reality -belongs to realm of senses, not intelligible, and is therefore subject to change -the life of opinion is thus attuned to the unstable, and limited -philodoxers=lovers of opinion -based on the structure of reality; that of the visible world, and of the intelligible -doxa is based on the visible world -allegory of the cave -shadows=doxa |
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Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics
-unlike the spoudaios; defined by lack of moderation and virtue; is in excess, self-indulgent, animal like, contributes to injustice -is a natural slave -no appreciation for magnaminous man in democratic society -does not follow the golden mean |
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Aristotle in Nicomachean ethics -magnaminous man is the spoudaios -good society depends on model of the virtuous
-man of good taste -generous, shows self restraint -epitome of golden mean -distinguishes between higher and lower things -cultivates taste -not all should strive to be magnaminous, but should avoid vulgarity -laity should appreciate magnaminous man -make the best rulers |
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Aristotle -philosophers don't make the best rulers because they lack common sense (practical wisdom) -practical wisdom as opposed to philosophical wisdom -difference between knowing what is just and doing what is just -virtue most in need for rule is doing what is good/just -spoudaios is the mature man-one with practical wisdom -man of experience, and a habit of acting with virtue -advised by the philosopher -contrast that with PK. -also compare with the idea of the Church advising the state -highest life is still the life of contemplation (philosophy) |
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polity is a mixed regime of oligarchy and democracy -these comprise two of the corrupted regimes in Aristotles typology -typology good-kings, aristocracy, polity bad-tyranny, oligarchy, democracy -typology derived from study of different city/states best regime is a mixed regime (best at compromising, which makes for justice); better than pure regimes- -origins of constitutional government -put evil in the service of good; can only get what you want if you compromise with other class |
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plato and aristotle point of contact; Divine & human means right reason part of human consciousness that is partly human and divine senses transcendence we know the true, good and beautiful through the nous -senses the pull towards the divine (helkein) |
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- Helenistic Age à Greek like
- Wrote Histories
- Interested in Roman history
- More specifically the reasons for Rome’s recent political successes
- Interested in history and its connection to regime life
- “why did regimes rise and fall?”
- What makes Roman government more durable
- Roman regime contained certain features which accounted for the stability and vitality which were essential for Rome’s growth and prosperity
- Looked at political, military, religious conditions
- Political à essential strength through form of its constitution
- Had elements of monarchy (office of the consuls) , aristocracy (Senate), democracy (tribal assembly) = (mixed regime)
- Served interest of various social classes and at same time contained series of checks and balances
- Polybius believed that Rome would eventually fall despite benefits of a mixed regime
- Using Plato & Aristotle, Polybius, looked at 3 legit and 3 forms of gov’t
- Legit = kingship, aristocracy & democracy
- Corrupt = tyranny, oligarchy, & ochlocracy (democracy, mob rule)
- Looked at these elements as a historical cycle
- 1. kingship à floods, natural calamities, drought
- Monarchies tend to degenerate into corrupted form
- Reject demands of justice à
- turn into 2. tyrants à as the abuses of tyranny become insufferable, best members of society rise to overthrow the tyrants and establish à
- 3. aristocracy à society is characterized by rule of the wise; corruption enters regimes and aristocracies degenerate into à
- 4. oligarchies àmain focus on pursuit of money; as this abuse continues, the people rise up and establish à
- 5. democracies dedicated to pursuit of freedom and enjoyment of equality
- Democracies intrinsically are unstable form of gov’t and eventually become corrupted and turns into mob rule, violence and rioting produce chaos and w/ chaos the cycle beings with kingship and the following elements
| Good Forms of Regimes | Corrupted Forms of Regimes | | Kingship (one) | Tyranny | | Aristocracy (few) | Oligarchy | | Polity (many) | Democracy (many) | - Through his writing, Polybius emphasized practical lessons learned – analyzed the whole so as to be able to the best of one’s ability “prediction of events”
- Lessons of historical political cycles à all pure forms of gov’t tend to degenerate into its corrupted alternative
- One then can expect political change and at same time the rate of change is not necessarily constant
- Some societies may be able to postpone their fate, even though not every society can endure forever
- Rome was successful b/c achieved constitutional mixture best designed to postpone inevitable changes in history
- Success b/c “privileged position” in historical cycle
- Analyzed differently then Aristotle and Plato (they looked at the symptoms)
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| jus naturale (natural law) |
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- natural law theory by Cicero
- right reason in accordance with nature
- no escape from natural order, even in war
- Humans know through reason
- Wrong to murder, steal
- Can expect too much from individuals
- Prohibition
- Unreasonable to completely outlaw all alcohol
- Failed to see moral capacity of peole
- Eventually incorporated with into Christianity by identifying the Stoic concept of reason (logos) w/ the divine word (logos) of Christ
- law between all creatures
- Became means of granting or denying legitimacy to various political decisions
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cicero tailored to circumstance particular people; law tailored to any one nation -roman law was civil law should derive from natural law customs and practices of a particular people in rome, the twelve tables |
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| jus gentium (law of the tribes) |
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– law regardless of different variable à universal/international law (ie – murder is wrong); - higher law which transcended human nature and therefore included the practices of all, natural reason of all human beings
- first equated with Stoic concept of natural law, with time came distinction
- distinctions btwn the 3 entered into Western political thought
developed as a response to Roman expansion - lowest common denominator laws for all people
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- begun in 413 and completed in 426
- considered Augustine’s most important writing and greatest apologetical work of early Christianity
- Augustine intended the book as a response to specific challenges facing the church of his day
- Fall of Rome in 410 was blamed on Christians b/c it rejected pagan deities and its fall proved the inferiority of Christianity
- City of God critique of the pagan world-view
- Structured on concept of 2 cities
- (1) City of God (identified in analysis w/ church) and the (2) earthly city (identified w/ Assyrians/Roman Empire)
- For Augustine, all people may be defined in terms of that object whose love dominates their soul.
- Soul (formed by God) is radically opened toward the transcendent and sacred of object of desire
- Soul (formed by love of self) is closed around itself and thus denied the opened of that relationship formed in God.
- Closed soul suffers from pride and pride is source of all evil
- One may be part a of the hierarchy of the church and still belong to the earthly city or one could be an officer of the state and belong to the city of god
- God had predestined those grace with soul’s love for God and those without
- All pple are weakened by original sin and must be empowered to will correctly by the grace of God
- Christians are the best statesmen, rulers, etc
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characterized in christian political thought -the ancients had a 1-d search for the good life -emphasis was on the search for truth, justice -humanity is also pulled (helkein) towards the divine -acts as a one way street -God is not searching for man -Aristotle believes that a true friendship is only possible between equals -God is not equal, and therefore love between man and God is not possible -grace is therefore earned through an ordered soul (human will) |
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characterized by christian political thought -christians have a 2-D search for truth; they are looking for God and God is looking for them -God came to Earth (Jesus) and spread his love for Man -love is possible between those of unequals -Grace is the discretion of God -Augustine states that God has already decided who will receive grace, and man cannot have virtue without grace |
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| The things of God and the things of Caesar |
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associated to Aquinas (?) - Obligations of Christians have to God/church vs. the state/political rulers
- Things that are required from the state
- State is necessary institution
- Certain thinks are owed to Caesar and others to God
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– (Aquinas) God’s plan for creation - Certain degree of faith
- Not apparent to reason alone
- how God governs the universe
- participation by humans with eternal law is called natural law
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(Aquinas) def-specified conditions derived from the natural law - Leads individuals to moral code
- Humans flawed creatures
- purpose of human law is to lead individuals to virtue gradually
center of statesmanship lies in natural law and human law - a good ruler knows the natural law and can translate it to human law
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(Aquinas) def-revelations to the faithful that permitted them to share more perfectly in the dictates of eternal law example-ten commandments -requires faith, not readily apparent through reason -can be known through natural law -defines the grounds as to how Christians can communicate with non-christians (they use reason) |
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| The story is about Gyges of Lydia who found a magic ring on a corpse inside the earth that had opened during an earthquake. He used the ring to seduce the king’s wife, kill the king, and assume the throne. Glaucon uses the story to argue that justice is done to avoid the punishment that results from injustice. Plato/Socrates returns to Gyges’ Ring in Book X 612 b to summarize an argument that the good man does justice regardless of reputation and punishment. A metaphor used by Plato in Book II of the Republic to explain the relationship between virtue, political order, justice, and liberty. The story is about Gyges of Lydia who found a magic ring on a corpse inside the earth that had opened during the earthquake. He used the ring to seduce the king’s wife, kill the king, and assume the throne. Glaucon uses the story to aruge that justice is done to avoid the punishment that results from injustice. Plato/Socrates returns to Gyges’ Ring in Book X to summarize an argument that the good man does justice regardless of reputation and punishment. Socrates explains the power of Gyges ring in the dialogue. When the ring is worn, an individual becomes invisible. i.e., he can do anything and not be perceived. Any action can be taken without facing consequences. Plato uses Gyges’ ring to suggest the political order and justice are impossible without individuals who are able to follow virtue regardless of its consequences. A virtuous person is one who lives the good life even when wearing Gyges ring. If the only thing that prohibits individuals from breaking the written law or unwritten moral code is the fear of being discovered and punished, then political order and justice rest on a very precarious foundation. Justice requires that individuals (esp political leaders) seek the good without reservations about what other with think or do. Political and moral corruption occur when rulers and individuals abuse power and privilege, i.e., they are disordered souls who behave as if they are wearing the Gyges’ ring and measure good by their desires especially the will to power (libido dominandi) |
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Definition: · Augustine says that all people can be defined in terms of that object whose love dominates their soul · The soul that’s formed by the love of God (amor dei) · Radically opened toward the transcendent and sacred object of its desire · Augustine believes in predestination o God already selected those who will be graced with the power of amor dei and those who won’t o Emphasizes the ultimate power of God’s grace o All people are weakened by original sin and must be empowered to will correctly by the grace of God |
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Definition: · Augustine says that all people can be defined in terms of that object whose love dominates their soul · The soul that’s formed by the love of self (amor sui) · Closed around itself and thus denied the openness of that relationship formed in God · The closed soul suffers from pride · For Augustine, pride is the source of all sin Example of both amor dei and amor sui: · Taken from Augustine’s The City of God which is structured on the concept of 2 cities o The city of God and the earthly city · Both cities are spiritual communities and membership in each is determined by the spiritual disposition of its citizens · City of God includes both humans and angels o Exhibits a nonterrestrial quality o This city transcends nature and history o According to Augustine, the only important question in one’s life is the question of membership in the city of God § This question can only be resolved through the grace of God § The meaning of history became apparent precisely in those moments during which God erupted into time so as to form the community of His believers · The citizens of the cities are intermixed and won’t be separated until the day of final judgment o Until then, only God knows who they are · One’s true citizenship is determined solely by the disposition of one’s soul and not by any affiliation with another institution o One can be a member of the hierarchy of the church and still belong to the earthly city o One could be an officer of the state and truly belong to the city of God o The effect of this Augustinian doctrine is to loosen the individual’s ties to political community · The cities were formed by 2 loves o The earthly by the love of self, even to the contempt of God § Glories in itself § The wise men of this city live according to man and sought for profit to their own bodies or souls o The heavenly by the love of God, even to the contempt of self § Glories in the Lord § There is no human wisdom, only godliness |
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Transcendent Definition: · Universal · Cosmologicalà space o There are ordered patterns § Day and night § Seasons § Sun o Something must be ordering the world (gods) o Transcendent order o The source of order in the cosmos · Realissimum o Synonymous o The thing which is the most real Significance: · Transcendent’s connection to nous o Point of contact between transcendent/divine and human § Essential for making just laws § Aiming toward that transcendent order § Equated to Aquinas’ natural and human laws o The Beyond (Plato and all thinkers) § Eric Voegelin said humans have always searched for meaning § That thing/reality beyond the physical world § Implants the pull in humans toward harmony in the soul (agathon)Looked to link the order of the universe to political and social order § Connection between this transcendent/universal order and the mundane order (human/social/political order) § There’s a connection between the order of the soul and the order of the polis § Those who govern should have ordered souls o Christian belief that God and humanity sought to encounter one another § Relationship between God and the human went beyond that of friendship and became a relationship of love § The soul was the source of energy by which the worshiper could reach out to God and it became the receptacle of that divine energy by which God had reached out to His people |
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Art Definition: · Techne · Skills concerned with the good of the object with which they work · Seek to promote the health of the body · Wisdom and the search for it · Pursued by philosophers o One type of educator in Athens Significance: · Plato develops an analogy between politics and medicine o Humans have spiritual needs which must be satisfied if we are to live truly normal lives o We aren’t simply bodies, therefore, it’s not enough to just satisfy our bodily desires o Humanity requires an art other than the medical o By comparing political art and medical art, Plato introduces his case for the political role of philosophers o Doctors are legitimate practitioners of medicine because they possess that knowledge (art) o Philosophers, who possess knowledge concerned with promoting the health of the soul, are legitimate practitioners of political art o Soul’s health emerges in the pursuit of wisdom o Philosophers are legitimate political rulers · Example: o Medicine and gymnastics o Philosophy is an art § Politics is concerned with the health of the soul § Caring for the soul requires a knowledge of its needs and an awareness of what is good for it § Such an awareness is the concern of philosophy Knack Definition: · Concerned primarily with producing pleasure · Appear educated when they’re not (rhetoric) o Philodoxer § 2nd type of educator in Athens § Sophist · Make money and gain power · Don’t care about gaining truth Example: · Cookery and cosmetics o Cookery seeks to make food pleasing without regard for its nutritive value o Cosmetics seeks only the appearance of good health rather than health itself · Rhetoric is a knack o Rhetoricians seek to win the approval of the people through pleasing speeches o This ability, however, doesn’t imply that they have a knowledge of what is good Example for art and knack: · In Socrates’ Gorgias, Socrates and Gorgias are vying for the right to educate the next generation of Athenian political leaders o Gorgias (a Sophist) teaches rhetoric, which is the power to persuade o Socrates teaches philosophy, one must know justice to teach politics |
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| Callicles and Thrasymachus |
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Thrasymachus represents a character type that is unfit for constitutional politics. He is unwilling to search for the truth and places power above the aletheia. Only open souls can engage in meaningful discussion. Socrates uses education (the art of periagoge) to turn souls to the agathon.
Callicles Definition: · A politically ambitious student of Gorgias · Claims to be a “realist” · Introduces the Sophistic distinction between nature and convention · Argues that conventional norms of justice are creations by the weak designed to protect themselves from the ambitions of the stronger · Argues that nature (physis) favors the rule of the strong and encourages them to pursue their pleasure with no regard for the interests of the inferior Thrasymachus Definition: · Character in Plato’s Republic who argues that might makes right (Book I 339 e) p.15 · Thrasymachus represents a character type that is unfit for constitutional politics. He is unwilling to search for the truth and places power above the aletheia. Only open souls can engage in meaningful discussion. Socrates uses education (the art of periagoge) to turn souls to the agathon. · Demands that Socrates give his own positive account of justice rather than simply refuting other people’s o Socrates says he doesn’t know what it is and asks Thrasymachus to give his advice o Thrasymachus says justice is the advantage of the stronger · He demonstrates the limits of and prerequisites for rational discussion and democracy · Sophist and dioxer; not philosophically minded · Has a temper and is impatient · Believes that justice is what the powerful say it isà might makes right · Philodoxer o Appear educated when they aren’t o Rhetoric o One type of educator in Athens · Sophist o Make money and gain power o Don’t care about gaining truth Significance: · His view represents a prevalent attitude in political lifeà that power decides justice · Represents a bad regime in which the political figures promote their own good · Advocates tyranny · Thrasymachus commits ideology o Something that’s partly true is true of everyone in all circumstances o He ignores someone with the character of G. Washington |
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a pull, or a tension within the soul (akin to christian grace); the pull is transcendent (universal), it is what pulls people towards the telos, and the nous is the point of contact Definition: · Pull; tension of the soul o Divine pull toward happiness/telos (ultimate ends of human life are happiness, virtue, the good, justice) o Pull up toward God/gods o God’s way of drawing man in o Humans feel a pull that sends us searching for answers § Answers to the human condition, etc. · Close to the Christian idea of grace but more intellectual · Important idea for the Greeks |
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The beautiful city that Socrates creates to illustrate what justice is. literally means "the beautiful city" it is a political regime society at its best (NOT PERFECT) Definition: · Discussed in Plato’s Republic between Socrates and Adeimantus · The beautiful/ideal/completely good/luxurious city that Socrates creates to illustrate what justice is o It would have to be completely virtuous and completely just § Virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice § Looking for these virtues in the souls · Political society at its best · In the Kallipolis this means each class attends to its duties and not that of other classes; each class minds its own business. Likewise the ordered soul and ordered city are in harmony because each part minds its own business: rational part (philosopher kings), spirited part (auxiliaries), and appetitive part (artisans) · A society that’s just · The ordered city · Its goal is to make everyone as happy as his nature allows o This is accomplished if everyone practices the craft for which his natural aptitude is highest (whether producing, guarding, or ruling) · Consists of: o Guardians § The soldier-police who constrain internal and external enemies § Specialized in their jobs § They are moral and just and courageous § Educated in music and poetry and physical training o Rulers/Philosopher Kings § His character resembles the kallipolis o Artisans § Producers Significance: · Plato then equates the kallipolis to the soul · He looks for justice in the city and then justice in the soul · If the same thing is justice in both, then he will feel secure that what he has identified in them is indeed justice · Looking for the virtues in the soul leads to the division of the soul into 3 parts o Appetitive § Corresponds to producers in the kallipolis o Spirited § Corresponds to guardians in the kallipolis o Rational § Corresponds to rulers in the kallipolis § Should govern the other parts |
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Definition: · Trying to turn the soul away from doxa (opinion of untruth) toward truth Significance: · Education is the craft concerning the turning around of the soul and thus the body o Everyone has the ability to learn o Soul must be in order to make good dialogue o Political rulers should have undergone this education § Philosopher Kings Example: · Allegory of the Cave o People are chained and unable to turn around § They watch shadows on the wall and believe it’s reality (doxa) o The cave dweller (Socrates) is the philosopher § Wants to teach them alethia (the truth) § The philosopher has seen the light · The philosopher has knowledge and is able to educate · Had difficulty returning to the cave § Attempts periagoge · To turn the people away from doxa and show them the truth · People don’t want to listen and kill him § The higher cannot be known by the lower · Athens’ hope is the art of periagoge (education) o Socrates attempts to educate Athenians and his execution |
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Definition: · The will to dominate or the will to power · Leads to tyranny/degeneration of regimes Significance: · God doesn’t want humans to dominate others · Issue of slavery o Humans have a soul o God lives in the soul of humans o Humans have dignity o Animals don’t have a soul or dignity · God set up a hierarchy after the fall of man o Evil is now present in humans God ▼ Humans ▼ Beasts/Creation o Humans have dominion over creatures of the earth o Humans have temptation to dominate other humans o Therefore, government is necessary b/c it keeps them from dominating one another · Aligns with one of Augustine’s central aspects of political theory o The state is necessary because of sin § Government is necessary because of the evil part of human nature § If men were good, they wouldn’t need government § It stops humans from doing evil |
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In Plato’s view human nature is part of the structure of reality. Every human shares the same human nature although they do not share the same personality or character. Human nature remains constant and cannot be transformed by politics but politics must account for human nature. fixed structure of reality; human nature; its literal meaning is in between; humans are between god and animals, which allows for only certain things to be possible in politics; the idea that there can be a "war to end all wars" flys in the face of the doctrine of metaxy; this leads to moral realism, which Plato is; he believes violence is a permanent part of political life; Aristotle states that: Man is a social and political animal and Only gods or beasts can live outside the polis Definition: · Plato’s concept of human nature as a fixed structure of reality · In Plato’s view, human nature is part of the structure of reality. Every human shares the same human nature although they do not share the same personality or character. Human nature remains constant and cannot be transformed by politics, but politics must account for human nature. · The structure of human nature is fixed and unchanging and constant · Humans are between gods and beasts and mortal and immortal · Plato was a moral realist who believed that human nature has both good and evil inclinations · There’s a war in the soul · Ethical dualism · Humans can have different characters but they all have the same human nature · Different personality types · Like Plato, Aristotle believed that human nature is part of the structure of reality. Every human shares the same human nature although they do not share the same personality or character. Human nature remains constant and cannot be transformed by politics but politics must account for human nature · Man is a social and political animal · Only gods or beasts can live outside the polis · The polis preexists man · Man is born into the polis · Humans don’t know anything else · John Hobbes disagrees o He believes that human beings, in their natural state, live in the state of nature outside the polis o Humans live as solitary creatures o War against all o The best ruler is the leviathan § A hideous creature that rules by fear and power § Threatens the masses with violence to create order Significance: · It means that there are limits to politics Example: · WWI and WWII were called the wars to end all wars · LBJ’s “Great Society” was supposed to eliminate all poverty · The policy No Child Left Behind is supposed to make no child in the US left behind in education |
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Definition: · Passion · Aristotle believes women would rule by passion and emotion (unfit for ruling) · Aristotle’s Natural Slavery o People who are slaves to their passions are natural slaves o Lack self-control o Ruled by the body, not rational thought/reason · Pathos vs. reason/logos · The Vulgar Man simply satisfies passions o Aristotle’s Ethics |
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| doctrine of the two swords |
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Definition: · Believed by Aquinas and Augustine · Ways to separate state (Caesar) from Church (God) · Two swords o Pope Gelasius I and The things of God & the things of Caesar · Pope Gelasius I o Established the Western alternative to Byzantine caesaropapism o People of the different life styles have moral obligations to act differently o Ways to salvation § Holy Life · Saints, clergy · Give up all worldly goods · Live of the few; not for everyone · Very demanding · Religious calling · Beatitudes in the Bible § Good Christian · Dr. Federici J · Life of the many · Focus more on worldly/material things · Marriage and family is acceptable · Politics is acceptable · Being educated and taught Christian values prepares one for political life § Example · 9/11 o It would have been immoral for U.S. political leaders to cancel out war as a response to the terrorist attacks o They acted more as Good Christians than the Holy Life · The things of God and the things of Caesar o Idea taken from the Bible § Render to God that which is God’s and render to Caesar that which is Caesar’s o Obligation Christians have to God (Church) and the State (Political Rulers) o The state is a necessary institution § Provides justice and provides for the Church o Christians must pay taxes o A means of keeping/creating limits on politics § The things God made for the next life can’t be achieved here on earth § Politics is the art of the possible o Example § ROTC on campus · Does it coincide with Catholic principles? · Yes, it is a “thing of Caesar” · There are 2 ways to salvation § Thomas Moore · The King wanted a divorce from his wife in order to marry another in the hopes of producing a son · King splits and creates a new church · Creates a law that all must accept his divorce and remarriage · Thomas Moore refuses to recognize the King’s marriage · Moore says that the law is arbitrary and not based on natural law · Moore followed the things of God, but still tried to serve the king · Moore places more value in God’s rules than the King’s · Moore suggests that there’s something higher than the state · When there’s a conflict, duty is owed to God rather than the state · The state can’t be the highest authority because it’s human runàthere’s a possibility for error · Difference between nationalism and patriotism o Nationalism § Stick by one’s nation no matter what § Japanese internment camp · 5% refused to swear undying loyalty to US o Patriotism § One loves their country, but will criticize when it becomes unjust |
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Definition: · Happiness o Quality of existence that results from ordering the soul § Reason governs passion and spiritedness o It’s in accordance with agathon and aletheia o Virtue breeds happiness o Enduring · Aristotle’s Ethics (similar belief to Plato) o Happiness is a quality of existence that results form ordering the soul (reason governs spiritedness and passion) o “happiness does not consist in amusement…we choose everything for the sake of something else—except happiness; for happiness is an end” (Ethics 1176b) · The highest good for human beings · It’s the end of the city-state and all its individual citizens · The final end of all action and production · It is complete and self-sufficient · External goods and goods of the body are chosen for the sake of the goods of the soul · The most important part of happiness consists in activities like music, philosophy, and the contemplation of God · Aristotelian happiness isn’t a feeling of contentment or pleasure (although both are involved in it) o Its’ more a matter of living successfully by living a life in which really valuable things are achieved · Opposite pleasure o An immediate satisfaction of passions that are insatiable o When the passion returns the disordered soul must act to fulfill it as he is, like democratic man, a slave to passion |
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Aristotle "like-mindedness" -necessary for true friendship -also necessary for political order -happiness is impossible without it -ethical prerequisite to experience homonoia: virtue and an ordered soul -it is the glue that holds society together Definition: · Like mindedness · Like mindedness about what’s just and good · Common good · Follows the Greeks’ (specifically Aristotle’s) idea of friendship · Friendship: o Essential to politics o Different kinds of friends o Necessary for social order o Holds society together o Present in community o 3 types of friends: § Utility · Basis of utility · Business transaction § Pleasure · Basis of pleasure · Sexual relationship § True · Individuals have a genuine concern for the other’s moral well-being (marriage) · Stick together through thick and thin · Only possible among equals (virtue) · Spiritual needs to lead a good and healthy life (happiness)à political issue · Homonoia (like mindedness) is a prerequisite for friendship · Prerequisite for happiness because happiness needs friendship/love · There’s an ethical prerequisite to experience homonoia o Both must be engaged in virtue to experience it · Find identity, stability, purpose, happiness, friendship in community o Household (family) o Village o Polis o A sense of place and scale o Communityà primary place where true friendships are made and found o Where happiness is found o Where one’s actual life is lived · Example: o America tries to bring about a commonality/good among its citizens § Pledge of Allegiance |
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Definition: · In the Politics (Book I), Aristotle defends his view called natural slavery · Based on one’s ability to reason · When they are incapable of living the good life on their own · Those who lack reason and are incapable of governing themselves are intended by nature to be ruled by masters · One who uses the body for labor · Isn’t capable of rational foresight · Ruled by the bodyànot rational thought or reason · Lack self-control · People who are slaves to their passions are natural slaves · From birthàsomeone who needs to be ruled · Says women shouldn’t be in the ruling class o Women govern more by emotion/passion (pathos) o Pathos vs. reason/logos · Mentally retarded o ruled by parents o can’t reason properly · It would be cruel to not govern those that need it for their personal well-being · Some need a moral ruler because they are incapable of acting properly on their own free will and initiative · The more one acts immorally, that immorality becomes easier and more consistent o They need a morally ruler · Those that lack reason to govern themselves must be ruled · Humans are naturally social and political and pursue telos o Some are natural rulers and some are natural slaves · Prudential inner check o Individuals must display restraint (even criminals) · Aristotle opposes conventional slavery o the kind of slavery that exists in Greece o Slavery of the conquered enemies o Based on something arbitrary · Social Darwinism o Survival of the fittest o Eliminate the lower class to uplift the higher classes o Progressivism · The GoodàTelos o Happiness and justice o Treating a human like property is going against the nature of humans o It doesn’t lead to friendship · Common/Modern thought o Arbitrary quality based on race o Slavery isn’t justified on qualified reasons o It’s based on race not ability o Fit to rule o Education, character, ordered soul |
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Greek philosopher (469BC-399BC); tried and executed for impiety and corruption of youth - Influence over western society based on personality and character through the writings of others such as Plato and Aristotle
- Cicero credits him with redirecting thoughts from natural to ethical philosophy by having the ability to make philosophy known to man kind and ask questions about morality and right vs wrong
- Aristotle credts Socrates w/ development of inductive argumentation and the demand for general definition
- Expressed by Plato, the Socratic position is that the lie of virtue consists in the life of philosophy; philosophy is the search for truth, it begins w/ an admission of ignorance and by admitting ignorance, Socrates was challenging the adequacy of existing Athenian political order and its beliefs
- By identifying the virtuous life with the life of philosophy, Socrates is challenging the authority of political life
- If he is correct, politics is not the highest calling and therefore it cannot demand from humanity its deepest loyalties; loyalty to the regime is surpassed by loyalty to truth and the political virtues of courage, moderation, and reverence are superseded by the philosophical virtues of wisdom and prudence
- Western philosophy raised a challenge to traditional assumptions of political existence
- Plato was the greatest of Socrates’ disciples
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