• angiosperm
• flowering plants
• monocots -grasses, lillies, irises, orchids, palms 
• dicots - most trees, shrubs, many herbs, ganja :)

• flowers ini 4/5
• triaperturate pollen
• two cotyledons
• net like vennation
• ring like vascular bundles
• true secondary growth

• flowers in threes 
• monoaperturate pollen
• one cotyledon
• parallel vennation
• scattered vascular bundles
• rare secondary growth

The flower, define:

Carpel (2)

Inflorescences (3)

Sterile appednages (perianth) (2) 

Fertile parts (4)

•  vessel, contains ovules
• peduncle, pedicel, receptacle
• sepals (calyx),petals (corolla)
• stamens (androcium) - microsporohphylls that are made of filament and anther containing pollen sacs in two pairs
• carpels (gynoecium) - megasphorylls that made of pistil, ovary, style, and stigma

placenta 

categorized by how many ovules are arranged (3 types 

imperfect flower structure (2)

imperfect plant structure (2)

staminate 

carpellate

Monoecious (both flowers in the same plant)

Dioecious (flowers in different plants)

Whorls (2)

Arrangment (2)

Overy position (2)

1. complete or incomplete
2. spiral or whorled
3. superior or inferior

• hypogynous 
• perigynours
• epigynous

regular (radially symmetrical or actinomorphic)

irregular (zygomorphic)

plant life cycles:

2 generations

2 processes

• sporophyte (diploid)
• gametophyte (haploid)
• meiosis
• fertilization

• microsporogenesis: formation of microspores (single celled pollen grains), occurs in pollen sacs (microsporangia) of anther
• microgametogenesis: development of microgametophyte within pollen grain, microspore produces large tube cell and small generative cell, generative nucleus produces two sperm until 3 celled stage. 

1. resistant outer wall 
2. inner wall 
3. may be packed with starch or oils 
4. highly variable: in size, shape and number of arrangement of apertures for pollen tube
5. well represented in fossil record
6. unlike spores: have 2-3 nuclei when shed, germinate through apertures

angiosperm life cycle

formation of egg and polar nuclei (megagametophyte and megagametogenesis)

• megagametophyte formed by two processes:

Pollination and double fertilization (3) (basic)

• unique to angiosperms
• anther dehisces to release pollen
• pollen transferred to stigma 
• take up water and germinate
• form pollen tube (mature microgametophyte)

1. pollen tube enters ovule through micropyle
2. penetrates one synergid
3. double fertilization
1. one sperm enters egg
2. other sperm enters central cell
1. triple fusion

1. primary endosperm nuclues divides to form endosperm

• provides food to develop
• usually carb, protein, lipids

1. zygote develops into embryo
2. integuments develop into seed coat
3. ovary wall and realted structures develop into fruit

pollination

double fertilization

seed and fruit

early cretaceous (at least 130 million years ago)

90 million years ago

75 million years ago

characteristics unique to angiosperms

(7)

1. flowers
2. closed carpals
3. double fertilization leading to endosperm formation
4. 3 nucleate microgametophyte
5. 8-nucleate megagametophyte
6. stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs
7. sieve tubes and companion cells in phloem

single common ancestor, lacked flowers, closed carpals, and fruits. Had pollen with single aperture. 

3% of angiosperms are not monocots or eudicots: 

these include living angiosperms with the most archaic features

Magnoliids: leading to eudicots: magnolias, laurel family, pipevine family, spicebush family. their leaves contain oil cells (wtff free gas?? O.o). 

Small, isolated families arose prior to monocots-eudicot/magnoliid split

this included waterlilies and amborellaceae (Amborellatrichopoda)

• modified leaves specialized for attracting pollinators 
• from stamen that became sterile 
• often fuse to form tubular corolla 
• sometimes stamens and sepals fuse too

• some woody magnoliids, broad, colored, scented
• other archaic flowers -fleshy
• living flowers: usually filamentous stamens with thick, terminal anthers.
• sometimes fused together
• soemtimes lost fertile function, now nectaries 

• carpels of early angiosperms were unspecialized
• no stigma area
• not fused
• usually more ovules than contemporary families 

• flowers have evolved to few parts that are definite in number
• floral whorls often reduced from 4 to 3, 2 or 1; cant see spiral arrangement; parts often fused.
• overy from superior to inferior, perianth differentiated into calyx and corolla
• from radial symmetry to bilateral symmetry 

• eudicots (22,000 species)
• small flowers bunched in head
• 5 stamens usually fused to each other and to corolla 
• 5 petals fused to each other and to ovary 
• ovary inferior 
• sepals absent or pappys (for seed dispersal)
• two flower types: disk and ray
• flowers mature in spiral pattern

• monocots (24,000 species)
• 3 carpels fused, ovary inferior 
• thousands of minute ovules/ovary
• usually only one stamen fused with style and stigma into column
• modified petals and sepals; bilaterally symmetical 
• huge range of size
• some saprophytic
• clone plants for commercial use

Animals are primary

• co evolution of plants and pollinators 
• wind pollinated vs animal pollinated
• closed capel protects from herbivory
• bisexual flower more efficient
• promte consitency in type of visitor
• bees: flowers usually blue, yellow, with show petals and distinctive patterns
• butterflies and diurnal moths: landing platforms present on flower
• birds: red, odorless, lots of nectar
• bats: dull colored, lots of nectar, open at night, very strong odors/musty scents

• no nectar, dull color, odorless
• petals small or absent, large anthers, feathery stigmas
• monoecious 
• oaks, birches, grasses

• flavonoids :anthocyanins, flavonols
• carotenoids
• patterns differ depending on reflection

1. the formation of the embryo
2. two patterns : apical-basal pattern, radial pattern
3. accompanied by seed development (survival and dispersal)

Early embryogenesis is same in all angiosperms

polarity established (different ends)

embryo differentiates in to embryo proper and suspensor

• Protoderm
• suspensor

• protoderm
• cotyledon
• notch (site for future shoot apical meristem)
• procambium (hypoctyl root axis)
• ground meristem (hypoctyl root axis)
• suspensor (supports early development of embryo)
• as the embryo approaches maturity the cotyledon curves and suspensor disappears. 

Define: 

Protoderm

procambium

ground meristem

• future epidermis, formed by divisions parallel to the surface in outermost cells of embryo
• future vascular tissues, xylem and phloem
• future ground tissue

1. Gurke =lacks shoot apical meristem and cotyledon
2. fackle =lacks hypocotyl
3. monopteros =lacks roots
4. Gnom =lacks basal and apical portions

Define germination

and outline external factors (4)

Resumption of growth of the embryo

water, oxygen, temp, light

Fail to germinate even in favorable conditions

1. physiological immaturity
2. impermeability of seed coat

pass through digestive tract

rainfall (desert species)

mechanical cracking

heat of fire

light from canopy opening

called taproot

first structure to emerge

produced branch (lateral) roots

get food from endosperm

cotyledons absorb simple food from endosperm, transport throughout plant

• Get food from endosperm
• cotlyedons absorb simple food from endosperm, transport throughout plant

1. Root and shoot tips
2. extend plant body
3. initials cells -cells that perpetuate the meristems
4. derivatives cells - meristem cells that become body cell
5. primary growth - produces primary plant body
6. intermediate growth (unlike animals) -unlimited and prolonged growth of the apical meristem

what is organization of

1. apical meristem 
2. protoderm, ground meristem, procambium
3. epidermis, ground tissues, primary xylem and phloem

1. apical meristem
2. primary meristem
3. primary tissues

• Growth -irreversible increase in size, cell division and cell enlargement 
• morphogenesis -assumes a particular shape or form
• differentiation -cells with identical genetic constituents become different from each other and from meristem cells. This depends on control of gene expression, fate determined by the cells final position in organ

• structural and functional unit of cell 
• grouped 3 tissue systems
• ground (fundamental)
• vascular
• dermal
• characteristic 
• vascular tissues embedded in ground tissue
• dermal tissue forms outer covering

Simple: Ground tissues (parnchyma, collenchyma, and slerenchyma - make up ground tissue system)

Complex: epidermis (dermal tissue system), primary xylem and primary phloem (vascular tissue system)

• usually living at maturity
• capable of mitosis
• some cells secondary walls
• photosynthesis, storage, secretion, transport

• Living at maturity
• common in strands or cylinders
• usually elongated
• unevenly thickened, nonlignified primary wall
• support young, growing organs

• May be dead at maturity
• thick, often lignigied secondary wall 
• strength and support plants parts not elongating
• two types of cells 
• sclereids
• fibers

• Water-conducting tissue in vascular plants
• also mineral support, food storage
• Derived from
• procambium (primary xylem)
• vascular cambium (secondary xylem)

• Part of xylem
• tracheary elements 
• elongated cells with secondary walls, no protoplasts at maturity, may have pits
• Tracheids 
• less specialized, lacking perforations
• only type in most seedless vascular plants, gymnosperm
• Vessel elements 
• main conducting cell in angiosperms
• trade offs with perforation, WIDTH to compensate

Xylem (differentiation - programmed cell death)

other xylem cells (3)

1. parenchyma for storage
2. fibers for support and storage
3. sclereids sometimes

Vascular tissues

Phloem:

(1) function

(2) characteristics

Transports food (photosynthesis), amino acids, lipids, hormones, floral stimulus, proteins, viruses

principal conducting cells

sieve tube elemnts

primary walls

living protists at maturity (but some organielles broken down during differentiation

Callose and P-protein

Phloem: parenchyma

1. What kind of cells do they contain? (4 types)

1.Companion cells (with all organelles)

in angiosperms

connected to sieve-tube elements

2.albuminous cells

in gymnosperms

associated with sieve cells

3. other cells for storage

4. fibers and sclereids

Dermal Tissues: Epidermis

1. characteristics?

2. what are the specialized cells?

Dermal Tissues: Periderm

1. Define

2. what are they comprised of?

outermost cell layer of primary plant body

specialized cells

guard cells

trichomes

other

replaces epidermis in sec growth (stems and roots)

comprised of: cork, cork cambium, phelloderm

what are the primary functions of roots? (5)

Root systems:

1. primary root

2. taproot and lateral roots

3. short-lived taproot

anchorage, absorption, storage, conduction, synthesis of some hormones and secondary metobolites

1. primary root: first root that originates in the embryo

2. taproot and later roots

gymnosperms, magnolids, eudicots

3. short-lived taproot

monocots, fibrous root system (from adventitious roots)

what is the root system extent dependent on? (3)

where are feeder roots normally?

soil moisture, soil temp., soil composition

usually inupper portions of soil

depth varies among species

lateral spread usually greater than crown of tree

There is a balance b/w shoot and root system. Why?

root-to-shoot ratio?

balancing area for photosynthesis with area for absorbing water and minerals

root-to-shoot ratio

usually high in seedlings

decreases with age

depends on habitat, plant morphology

what kind of process is root growth?

what is within rootcap?

functions of root cap?

parenchyma (living, thin-walled cells) cells in root cap

root cap protects apical meristem

aids inr oot penetratioin in soil

responds to gravity (gravitopism)

periphel cels slough off as root grows

mucigel

apical meristem:

what is the region of cell division?

elongation?

maturation (differentiation)?

small, many-sided cells (initials)

cell div- nearby portion of root

elong- cell elongate, increasing root length

matur- root hairs produced

primary structure of root

what are the three tissue systems?

relative simple

no leaves, nodes, internodes

similar among species

three tissue systems

1. dermal tissue system (epidermis)

2. ground tissue system (cortex)

3. vascular tissue system (vascual tissues)

contains root hairs

tubular extensions of epidermal cells

increase absorptive surface

relatively short lived

epidermal cell walls usually allow water and mienrals easy passage

mycorrhizae also increases surface area

primary structure: cortex

occupies most of the area of roots

plastids (double membrane orgaanelle) usually stores starch

contains numerous intercellular air spaces

substances move via plasmodesmata b/w cells or along cell walls or both

innermost layer compact without spaces

endodermis

Casparian strips

• portion of primary wall and middlel amella with suberin and sometimes lignin

• restricts apoplastic movemtn substance.  Thus all substances entering and leaving the vascular cylinder must pass through protoplast of endodermal cells

exodermis: many angiosperms have a second layer of cells with Casperian strips

vascular cylinder: what is the pericycle?

what is the center made of?

one or more layers of nonvascular cells surrounding vascular tissues

originates from the procambium

later roots arise

may give rise to cork cambium

center is made of solid core of primary xylem

• the primary phloem in b/w xylem ridges

effect of 2ndary growth on primary body of root

2ndary growth

• 2ndary vascular tissues from vascular cambium
• periderm from cork cambium

roots of monocots and many herbaceous eudicots

procambial cells b/w primary xylem and primary phloem

what does periderm replace in woody roots?

what does the pericycle do?

what happens after periderm is formed?

periderm; usually follows initiation of secondary xylem and phloem

divides to produce complete cylinder of cork cambium

cork towards outer surface

phelloderm towards inner surface

may have lenticels

epidermis and cortex die off

where do lateral roots originate?

when do the divisions occur?

pericycle

divisions occur some distance behind region of elongation

root primordium

vascular cylinders of lateral and parent root connect later

what are aerial roots and air roots? (4)

1. adventitious roots

2. aerial roots

may serve as prop roots for support

3. air roots

grow upwards providing aeration

a.k.a. pneumatophores

4. epiphyte adaptations

root epidermis may be several layers thick

may photosynthesize

* protects cortex, reduces water loss and absorbs water

Adaptations for Food Storage: fleshy roots

what is storage permeated by?

where do some species have more parenchyma?

storge parenchyma permeated by vascular tissues

2ndary xylema nd phloem

others develops additional cambia that produce more storange parenchyma

apical meristem 

primary function:

what two groups does it produce?

• adds cells to primary plant body
• produces
• leaf primordia (develops into leaves)
• bud primordia (lateral shoots)
• may be protected by young leaves

vegative shoot apex: tunica-corpus organization

1.tunica DEF

2. how do they divide?

3. corpus: where is it location?

4. how do they divide?

• Vegatative shoot apex
• 1.tunica - outermost layer of cells, divide  anticlinally
• corpus - body of cells beneath tunica, divide periclinally
• peripheral meristem
• pith meristem

(1) can the vegatative shoot apex be divided? 

(2)what does the leaf primordia do to cause this?

(3) when does elongation occur? 

(1)no, cannot be divided into zones like root 

(2) leaf primordia originates too quickly to distinguish nodes and internodes

(3)elongation occurs primarily when internodes elongate

- intercalary meristem: growth in the regioins of the nodes

describe stem thickness of the primary tissues of the stem (3)

(1) what kind of divisions creates stem thickness?

(2) what type of growth attributes most to stem thickness?

• prericlinal divisions
• cell enlargement
• in monocots: meristematic cap

Primary structure of stem: has three basic organizations

(1) how is vascular system of internode organized?

(2) how do primary vascular tissues develop and what are they separated by?

• (1) vascular system of internode is more or less continuous cylinder within ground tissue. (non-monocot)
• (2) primary vascular tissues develop as bundles separated by ground tissues

which almost continous vascular cylinder: tilia (basswood, linden) (4)

what are their vascular bundles separated by?

what is their epidermis covered by? (Hint: function is to maintain water)

what do they have few of? (hint: function is gas exchange)

what is the cortex made of? (two types of ground tissue)

• tilia (basswood, linden)
• vascular bundles separated by very narrow area of ground parenchyma (interfascicular parenchyma)
• epidermis: single layer of cells covered by cuticle
• usually few stomata
• cortex: collenchyma, parenchyma

• almost continuous with vacular cylinder
• primary phloem develops from outer cells of procambium
• primary xylem from inner cells 
• one layer of cells in between becomes vascular cambium

Vascular system of discrete strands:

(1) sambucus

(2)Medicago

(3) ranunculus (buttercup)

-what do they resemble? (eud or mon)

-what happens after primary vascular tisues mature?

-what is significant about their vascular bundles? 

(1 and 2)herbaceous eudicot with secondary growth (similar to eachother)

(3) resembles monocots

- no procambium (means no secondary growth!)

-closed

scattered vacular bundles - Zea (maize)

- what is significant about their vascular bundles?

-what are their stems similar to? (eud or mon)

• closed vascular bundles
• similiar to eudicot stems
• phloem on outside, xylem on inside
• protoxylem
• mature bundle
• two large vessels
• sieve tube elements and companion cells

relation between the vascular tissues of the stem and the leaf (4)

(1) how is the procambial system of leaf connected with stem?

(2) how are the bundles arranged?

(3) what are leaf traces?

what are leaf trace gaps?

• procambial system of leaf is continous with stem
• bundles diverge at each node
• leaf traces: extensionin stem towards leaves
• leaf trace gaps: gaps of ground tissuein vascular cylinder above leaf traces

1. what do pattern of vascular system in stem reflect?
2. what does a branch trace connect?

1. arrangement of leaves

2. bud to main stem 

leaf arrangement : phyllotaxy (5)

1. helical

2. distichous

3. opposite

4. decussate

5. whorled

1. spiral

2. single leaf at each node, leaves are disposed in two opp. ranks

3. leaves are formed in pairs

4.each successive pair at a right angle to the previous pair

5. 3 or more leaves at a node

morhology of leaf 

simple vs. compound: how to tell the diff? (2)

parts of leaf? (3)

1.compound: can distinguish leaflets from leaves; --buds are in axil of leaves NOT leaflets
-leaves extend in various planes; leaflets in on 

• parts of leaf - 
• leaf (lamina)
• petiole
• sheath (sessile leaf)

Characterization of plants by water availability?

Mesophytes

Hydrophytes

xerophytes 

neither too wet or too dry

very wet

arid habitat

Describe epidermis (3)

- how are the cells aranged?

-what are they covered by?

how can the stomata be arranged? 

1. compactly arranged
2. covered with cuticle
3. stomata may occur on one or both sides

• may have more stomata 
• sunken stomata on lower surface of leaves
• epidermal hairs

Mesophyll (4)

1. define

2. describe intercellular spaces

3. describe chloroplasts

4. what kind of ground cells (2) do mesophytes haave?

• ground tissue of leaf
• large volume of intercellular spaces
• numerous chloroplasts
• palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma

discuss vascular bundles (4)

1.which group(s) have netted (reticulate)/branching venation?

2. "   " parallel venation?

3. what do veins contain?

• most eudicots and magnoliids 
• most monocots
• veins contain xylem and phloem
• minor and major veins -protected from intercellular spaces (bundle sheath)

• genetic mosaics (chimeras) occur in the shoot meristem
• example: mutations in the genes involved in chlorophyll production

leaf development (first i3love meeee)

1. what are founder cells?

2. what are leaf buttresses formed from? 

3. 

• founder cells (group of cells that spans all three layers of the meristem)
• leaf buttress (formed by change in the orientation of division within founder cells)
• leaf primordium (arrows point to procambium strands)

leaf development (last 3)

1. what is intercalary growth?

2. what part of the leaf stops growing first?

3. what type of growth? (indet. or determ)

• intercalary growth (cell division and enlargement throughout the blade)
• tip of leaf stops growing first
• determinate growth

magnoliid and eudicot leaves (3)

1.what does the procambium differentiate to become?

2. how are major veins developed?

3. where do minior veins initiate at? 

• procambium differentiates to become midvein
• major veins develop upward/outward
• minor veins initiate at leaf tip

Monocot leaves (3)

1. describe their growth and relationship of which to shoot apex

2. then, from where and how does the growth proceed?

• growth spread laterally and encircles shoot apex
• then growth proceeds linearly from basal meristem

sun and shade leaves :

1. what can the environment affect?

2. how are sun leaves diff than shade leaves in relation to: 

-size

-vascular system

-epidermal cell walls

-protosynthetic rates under high light

environment can affect leaf size and thickness

2. -smaller, thicker than shade leaves

-mor extensive vascular system

epidermal cell walls thicker

higher photosynthetic rates

• smaller, thicker than shade leaves
• more extensive vascular system
• epidermal cell walls thicker
• higher photosynthetic rates under high light

• abscission zone: formed by structural and chemical changes near base of petiole
• woody angiosperms -protective layer
• re-translocation of ions, amino acids, sugars, leaf scar

Sequence of physiological and structural changes (4)

1. what type of apex does the vegative shoot apex become?

2. when is it usually preceded?

3. what happens below shoot apex?

4. what does the apex increase?

• vegetative shoot apex becomes reproductive apex
• often preceded by elongation of internodes
• early development of lateral buds below shoot apex
• apex increases mitotic activity

Tendrils (3)

1. what is their function?

2. what are some modified stems?

3. modified leaves

• aid in support

2. some modified stems

-boston ivy 

-virginia creeper

-grape 

3. most modified leaves -

garden pea 

cladophylls 

1. what are cladophylls?

3. what do they lack?

• modified stems that appear to be leaves
• do not have buds in axils
• asparagus
• some cacti

thorns

spines

pea tendrils

modified branches in axils of leaves

modified leaves

modified leaves

• leaves modified to trap insects

tubers (2)

1. what type of stem?

2. what is their function?

• modified underground stem
• food storage

bulb (3)

1. what is a bulb?

2. what is their function?

3. where are their adventitious roots? 

• large bud of a small stem with many modified leaves attatched
• food storage
• adventitous roots from bottom of stem

• thickened, fleshy stem tissue
• thinner, smaller leaves than bulbs

petiole

succelent plants 

thick and fleshy (celery)

storage of water in stems or leaves

multiple epidermis derived by periclinal divisions of what?

what is the presumable function?

derived by periclinal divisions of the protoderm

functions as water-storage tissue