Term
Where are the majority of steroid receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Where are receptors for water-soluble hormones? |
|
Definition
On the outside of the cell -- they cannot pass the cell membrane! |
|
|
Term
What are the three domains for water-soluble hormone receptors? |
|
Definition
Binding domain (projects outside the membrane); transmembrane domain; cytoplasmic domain (the part that initiates target cell response) |
|
|
Term
"T/F: One hormone, one response is the rule." |
|
Definition
False. One hormone can trigger different responses in different types of cells. |
|
|
Term
What's the pathway for the fight-or-flight response? |
|
Definition
Senses detect danger-->signal adrenals to release epinephrine-->heart beats; liver breaks down glycogen; blood to gut cut off to go to escape muscles; fat cells release fatty acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ADH and oxytocin (to post. pit.); release/release-inhibitors to ant. pit. |
|
|
Term
Anterior pituitary hormones? |
|
Definition
"Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Growth, Prolactin" |
|
|
Term
Posterior pituitary hormones? |
|
Definition
"Oxytocin,Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Thyroxine (T4 and T3), calcitonin" |
|
|
Term
Parathyroid glands hormones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"CORTEX: Cortisol, aldosterone; MEDULLA: epinephrine" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"LADIES: Estrogens, progesterone; GENTLEMEN: testosterone" |
|
|
Term
Name six secondary endocrine glands. |
|
Definition
"Adipose tissue, heart, kidney, stomach, intestines, and skin." |
|
|
Term
Where is the pituitary gland? |
|
Definition
Attached to the hypothalamus. |
|
|
Term
PATHWAY: Two negative feedback for hypo/pituitary. |
|
Definition
Build up from tropic hormone --> hypothal; buildup of endocrine hormone --> hypo/ant. pit. |
|
|
Term
List the 7 hypothalamic tropic hormones and what they regulate. |
|
Definition
PRH (+ Prolactin); PIH (dopamine; - prolactin); TRH (+ TSH); CRH (+ ACTH); GHRH (+GH); Somatostatin (GHIH; - GH); GnRH (+ LH & FSH) |
|
|
Term
PATHWAY: Tropic hormones. |
|
Definition
Hypothal neuron makes tropic hormone --> takes portal vein bwn hypo and ant. pit --> ant pit releases tropic hormone --> that controls |
|
|
Term
What's the difference between T3 and T4? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
How is thyroxine made in the thyroid follicle? |
|
Definition
"Epithelial cell takes up I, binds it to tyrosines. Those get glycosylated and sits until needed. When needed, it gets endocytosed into a lysosome, chewed up, and secreted as T4 and T3." |
|
|
Term
Give me two reasons for hyperthyroidism related to glands. |
|
Definition
1) Thyroid is releasing too much T3/T4; 2) Ant pit is releasing too much TSH. |
|
|
Term
What two glands work together to keep [Ca2+] in blood between 9mg and 11mg/100mL? |
|
Definition
"The thyroid, with calcitonin (decreases [Ca2+]) and parathyroid (PTH, increases [Ca2+])." |
|
|
Term
What's the diff between the two types of diabetes? |
|
Definition
Type I: lack of insulin. Type II: lack of insulin receptors on target cells. |
|
|
Term
"Other than the Islet hormones, what does the pancreas secrete?" |
|
Definition
"Digestive enzymes (from the acinar and duct cells, all of which exocrine; as well as the F cell)" |
|
|
Term
What do beta-blockers block? |
|
Definition
"Beta-adrenergic receptors, thus reducing the fight-or-flight response." |
|
|
Term
What determines whether a fetus will become a dude or a lady? |
|
Definition
"Sex steroids (testosterone, and estradiol/progesterone)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"1) Antibody (ZAb) specific for a hormone (Z) is in solution. |
|
|
Term
Explain how Type II diabetes might develop. |
|
Definition
"Results from downregulation of insulin receptors. Might be b/c, over the course of a life, we ate too many carbs, which caused too much insulin to be released, and thus your cells shed their insulin receptors." |
|
|
Term
Why should you never just stop taking beta-blockers? |
|
Definition
"Over time, the lack of ep and norep uptake leads to ^^ of receptors. If you stop blocking those receptors all of a sudden, you'll absorb SO MUCH EP AND NOREP YOU'LL EXPLODE OMG." |
|
|
Term
How does epinephrine function in the cell? |
|
Definition
"G-protein mechanism (attaches to receptor, which phosphorylates G protein, splits off alpha which activates adenylyl cyclase)" |
|
|
Term
T/F Hormones have different effects when they come into contact with different receptors. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What're two ways norepinephrine could activate a signal xduction pathway? |
|
Definition
G-protein --> adenylyl cyclase; G-protein --> phospholipase C --> ^^ 2ndary messengers like cAMP. |
|
|
Term
What are the development steps of sperm? |
|
Definition
Germ cell(2n)-->spermatogonium(2n)-->1o spermatocyte(4n)-->2 * 2o spermatocyte(2n)-->4 spermatids(n) (sperm) |
|
|
Term
What are the development steps of ova? |
|
Definition
Germ cell(2n)-->oogonium(2n)-->1o oocyte(4n)(PAUSE) --> 2o oocyte(2n)+ polarbody 1 -->2 * ootid(n) (+polarbody 2) --> ovum |
|
|
Term
What are the steps of fertilization? |
|
Definition
"1) Recognition of sperm and egg |
|
|
Term
What are the two barriers in an urchin egg? |
|
Definition
"The jelly layer, then the vitelline envelope." |
|
|
Term
What are the two barriers in an internally fertilized egg? |
|
Definition
The cumulus and the zona pellucida. |
|
|
Term
Fast block to polyspermy? |
|
Definition
NOT IN MAMMALS!!! The change in membrane potential as Na+ ions enter the membrane of an egg after sperm contacts it |
|
|
Term
Slow block to polyspermy? |
|
Definition
"Ca2+ is released. (REMEMBER CA2+!!) Cortical granules fuse with the plasma membrane and exit the egg. Bonds bwn vitelline envelope and plasma membrane dissolve. H2O absorbed, and enzymes remove sperm-binding receptors" |
|
|
Term
What does sexual reproduction require? |
|
Definition
The production of haploid gametes and the formation of a diploid zygote. |
|
|
Term
Describe the layout of the seminiferous tubules. |
|
Definition
"They're lined with germ cells in various states of development. They're organized from least developed on the outside, to most developed toward the inside lumen." |
|
|
Term
What hormone starts spiking at puberty? |
|
Definition
GnRH --> Ant Pit: LH and FSH ^^^ |
|
|
Term
What does LH affect in dudes? |
|
Definition
"Leydig cells, which produce testosterone." |
|
|
Term
What does FSH affect in dudes? |
|
Definition
"Sertoli cells, which make spermies and then inhibin." |
|
|
Term
What happens when the blastocyst encounters the endometrium? |
|
Definition
Implantation (it burrows into it) |
|
|
Term
Two cycles of the female reproductive cycle? |
|
Definition
Ovarian cycle (eggs and hormones); uterine cycle (endometrium preparation) |
|
|
Term
When does ovulation occur? |
|
Definition
Around Day 14 f of the 28-day ovarian cycle. |
|
|
Term
Process of 1o oocyte --> expulsion? |
|
Definition
"oocyte (+follicular cells, to support and nourish it)->-after 2 weeks of growth, follicle ruptures, releases ovum-->ovum goes with follicles (remaining follicle cells become corpus luteum which secretes estrogen and progesterone for 2 weeks)-->into the oviduct " |
|
|
Term
About how many ovarian cycles does a lady usually go through |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
When do LH and FSH peak in the ovarian/uterine cycle? |
|
Definition
Just around ovulation (around d14) |
|
|
Term
What effect does estrogen have on LH and FSH? |
|
Definition
"It inhibits them, until days 12-14 when it magically becomes a positive feedback signal." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Before ovulation (around d13) |
|
|
Term
When/why does progesterone start increasing? |
|
Definition
"After ovulation, if the egg doesn't get fertilized" |
|
|
Term
When do ladies have their special time? |
|
Definition
Days 0-5ish of the uterine cycle. |
|
|
Term
What do LH and FSH do in broads at puberty? |
|
Definition
"Stimulates ovarian tissue to grow, which then releases estrogen." |
|
|
Term
What happens right before menstruation? |
|
Definition
Pituitary increases FH and LH; follicles in ovary grow and estrogen ^^; 1 follicle completely matures |
|
|
Term
What does the LH surge do? |
|
Definition
"Cuases the follicle to burst and release its egg, and develop the corpus luteum." |
|
|
Term
What does the corpus luteum do? |
|
Definition
"It secretes estrogen and progesterone, which -- the Ant. Pit. and hypo, inhibiting GnRH and thus new follicle maturation. No fertilization, it degenerates, so another follicle can mature." |
|
|
Term
"What do sperm and egg contribute to the zygote, respectively?" |
|
Definition
Sperm give DNA and MOC; egg gives DNA and nutrients and mRNAs and organelles and xscription factors. |
|
|
Term
T/F: Eggs are transcriptionally active during the developmental process. |
|
Definition
False: mRNAs take care of making shit. |
|
|
Term
How are segments of the frog egg defined d/t cytoplasmic movement? |
|
Definition
Ventral region is site of sperm entry; gray crescent is dorsal region. Animal and vegetal are anterior/posterior axis. |
|
|
Term
What initiates cytoplasmic reorganization? |
|
Definition
"The centriole from the sperm. It causes the MTs in the vegetal hemi to make a parallel array to guide the cytoplasm, and move organelles and proteins." |
|
|
Term
What happens when the zygote reaches 8 cells? |
|
Definition
The blastomeres change shape to maximize contact with one another. |
|
|
Term
What happens when zygie reaches 16-32 cells? |
|
Definition
The blastocyst divides into two masses: the inner cell mass (becomes the embryo); and the trophoblast (a sac forms from the outer cells and secretes fluid) |
|
|
Term
What adheres to the endometrium? |
|
Definition
The trophoblast (the sac!) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Vegetal hemisphere flattens, invaginates (archenteron; starts at bunghole), elongates to meet ectoderm (mouth). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"""dorsal lip of blastopore"" becomes archenteron, displaces blastocoel, results in atchenteron with endo meso and ecto derm around it." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Ectoderm over notochord forms neural plate; edges of neural plate fold and make a groove; the folds fuse making a neural tube (and a layer of ecto) |
|
|
Term
What does the anterior end of the neural tube become? The rest? |
|
Definition
"The brain, and the rest becomes the spinal cord." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
When does the heart begin to beat? When do limbs form? |
|
Definition
"Week 4 and 8, respectively." |
|
|
Term
When is Fetusy most susceptible to shit? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Second trimester and third trimester? |
|
Definition
"Limbs elongate and facial features form; 3rd, organs mature and begin to function." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The lungs. That's pretty dumb. |
|
|
Term
T/F: O2 content of air is higher than that of water. |
|
Definition
"For reals. It also diffuses faster through air, and it takes less energy to move air than water." |
|
|
Term
How far is any given cell away from a capillary? |
|
Definition
No more than one or two cells away. |
|
|
Term
How do water critters manage to respire effectively? |
|
Definition
"They have larger surface areas for gas exchange, central cavities, or specialized respiratory systems." |
|
|
Term
Why do we want a minimum diffusion path length of O2 and CO2? |
|
Definition
B/c it increases the partial pressure gradients! |
|
|
Term
How much is someone's avg tidal volume? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
How much is a dude or lady's avg. vital capacity? How do you increase it? |
|
Definition
"6L or 5L. By cardio, or wind instruments, or coughing, or dreams" |
|
|
Term
What are two features that offset the inefficiency of tidal breathing in mammals? |
|
Definition
An enormous surface area and a very short path length for diffusion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Trachea --> bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli. |
|
|
Term
What's blood's pathway through the alveolar capillaries? |
|
Definition
"Comes in DeO2-ed, releases HCO3- as CO2 into alveolus, gets oxygenated, moves on" |
|
|
Term
How does inhalation occur? |
|
Definition
"Diaphragm contracts, pulls down on the cavity/pleura, which creates negative pressure: expanding the lungs" |
|
|
Term
How does exhalation occur? |
|
Definition
"The diaphragm relaxes, and the elastic lung tissues pull the diaphragm back up and push air out of the airways." |
|
|
Term
What role do the intercostal muscles play in breathing? |
|
Definition
"The external ones lift the ribs up and outward, expanding the cavity; the internal ones decrease the volume by pulling the ribs down and inward. This helps in breathing." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"When the pleura are compromised, the pressure in the pleural space suddenly increases and no longer sucks the lung out -- thus, it just snaps back. Remember, pleural space is negative pressure." |
|
|
Term
How does Hgb decide how much O2 to pick up? |
|
Definition
"The pO2 of the plasma. If it's high, like in the lungs, Hgb will pick up its maximum of four. If it's low (as in oxygen-needy tissues), it'll release some." |
|
|
Term
What's the pO2 in the lungs? What's the pO2 in needy tissues? |
|
Definition
About 100 mmHg (hence 100% O2 binding). About 40mmHg (about 75% O2 binding.) |
|
|
Term
T/F: Fetal hemoglobin has less affinity for O2 than mama's Hgb. |
|
Definition
"FALSE. Fetal Hgb *has* to have a higher affinity, so it can steal O2 from mom's Hgb." |
|
|
Term
What are the three factors affecting the affinity of Hgb for O2? |
|
Definition
"1) Composition of Hgb (different in diff people or ages.) |
|
|
Term
What happens to CO2 after it's xported away from tissues? Why? |
|
Definition
"It slowly converts to HCO3- in the plasma (or more quickly, thx to carbonic anhydrase, in endo and RBCs); it keeps the pCO2 low and facilitates CO2 diffusion away from tissues." |
|
|
Term
What happens to CO2 in the lungs? |
|
Definition
"HCO3- is converted into CO2, diffuses from the blood into the alveoli (pCO2 is low in there!) and is exhaled." |
|
|
Term
T/F: Breathing rate is more sensitive to changes in pCO2 than to pO2 (in mammals) |
|
Definition
TRUE. It's the primary metabolic feedback for breathing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"In the carotid and aortic bodies in the vessels leaving the heart. If pO2 falls, they shoot signals to the brain stem to stimulate breathing." |
|
|
Term
What comprises a circulatory system (hint: 3 things)? |
|
Definition
A muscular pump (le coeur); a fluid (le sang); and a series of conduits (les sang vessels) |
|
|
Term
Why is a closed circulatory system advantageous? |
|
Definition
"1) There's faster transport through vessels. |
|
|
Term
What's the advantages of having separate pulmonary and systemic circuits? |
|
Definition
"1) Systemic circuit always receives blood with higher pO2 |
|
|
Term
Path of blood flow (pulmonary circuit first) |
|
Definition
Superior and inferior Vena cava --> Right atrium (contracts) --> Right ventricle (contracts) --> Pulmonary arteries --> Lungs --> Pulmonary veins --> Left atrium(contracts) --> Left ventricle (contracts) --> Aorta --> Body --> |
|
|
Term
"T/F: In the cardiac cycle, both sides of the heart contract in synchrony." |
|
Definition
"True. First the atria contract, then the ventricles." |
|
|
Term
"What's the ""lubdup"" noise in auscultation?" |
|
Definition
"The atrialventricular valves closing, then the ventricular valves closing." |
|
|
Term
What types of junctions are bwn most cardiac cells? |
|
Definition
"Gap junctions, in order to spread action potentials so contraction occurs in unison." |
|
|
Term
What makes the action potentials weird in pacemaker cells? |
|
Definition
"The Na+ channels are more open, and the channels are more permeable to Na+ than K+, so the memb. pot. is less negative; also, the actpot is d/t voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, which open more slowly than Na+ (making a humpy action potential). " |
|
|
Term
What does norepinephrine do to pacemaker cells? How about acetylcholine? |
|
Definition
Norep makes the threshold be reached more quickly (increases permeability of cation channels); ACh makes it be reached less quickly (by increasing K+ perm and decreasing Ca2+ perm). |
|
|
Term
How is the action potential in the heart propagated? |
|
Definition
"Generated in SA node, spreads throughout gap junctions in the atria. This stimulates bundle of His, which divides into right and left bundle branches that run to the tips of the ventricles. Purkinje fibers spread throughout the ventricles and spreads the contraction rapdily and evenly throughout the ventricles. Thi delay ensures proper blood flow! Rinse, repeat (god willing!)" |
|
|
Term
T/F: Ventricular muscle fibers have a shorter contraction than skeletal muscle fibers. |
|
Definition
False. They contract for much longer b/c the Ca2+ channels are open longer than the Na+ channels in normal action potentials. |
|
|
Term
PQRST wave patterns meanÉ |
|
Definition
P: Depolarization of the atria. QRS: Depolarization of the ventricles. T: Relaxation and repolarization of the ventricles. |
|
|
Term
Where are red blood cells generated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
When do RBCs ditch their organelles? When do they degrade? |
|
Definition
When they're about 30% Hgb. They last about 120 days before rupturing in narrow capillaries (as in the spleen). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Platelets accumulate at a wound and plug it. They release chemical clotting factors to attract other platelets. Prothrombin becomes thrombin, which cleaves fibrinogen into fibrin. These threads make a mesh that clots the blood and seals vessel." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Gases, ions, nutrients, proteins, and other molecules (hormones and vitamins, eg)" |
|
|
Term
Where's blood pressure highest and lowest? |
|
Definition
"Highest in the large arteries; lowest in the capillaries. (arterioles are highly branched; capillaries contribute ENORMOUS surface area, so less pressure)" |
|
|
Term
What are capillaries permeable to? Why? |
|
Definition
"They're permeable to water, ions, and small molecules, but not large proteins. B/c they have fenestrations in their thin thin walls." |
|
|
Term
What forces things into and ot of the capillaries? |
|
Definition
Osmotic pressure/Starling forces. There's less crap in the blood? Shove in shit. More crap in the blood? Send it out. |
|
|
Term
What prevents backflow in veins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What assists blood returning to the heart from the lower extremities? |
|
Definition
Skeletal muscle contractions that squeeze the veins. |
|
|
Term
Where do lymphatic capillaries merge? |
|
Definition
Two thoracic ducts that empty into neck veins. |
|
|
Term
What causes atherosclerosis? |
|
Definition
"Genes, age, high-fat/smoking/lazy, medical conditions (HTN, diabetes)" |
|
|
Term
T/F: ARteries and arterioles are innervated by the sympathetic division of the ANS. |
|
Definition
True! Norep causes arterioles to contract; ACh causes them to relax. |
|
|
Term
What des epinephrine do? What does angiotensin do? Why are they released? |
|
Definition
"Epinephrine contracts arterioles, in response to drop in pressure or F-or-F; angiotensin reduces flow to peripheral tissues, when blood supply to kidneys fails" |
|
|
Term
What controls HR and vessel constriction? |
|
Definition
The CV control center in the medulla! |
|
|
Term
What happens when arterial pressure falls? |
|
Definition
"Kidney releases renin --> angiotensin --> vessels constrict, you get thirsty. Pressure rises. |
|
|
Term
What's the response of increased activity of the baroreceptors (stretch receptors)? |
|
Definition
"This signals rising blood pressure. Symp is inhibited; parasymp is increased. Heart slows, arterioles dilate, BP falls." |
|
|
Term
What is the difference in chemoreceptors in the medulla and aorta/carotid? |
|
Definition
"In the medulla, they're activated by ^^ pCO2; in the aorta and carotid, activated by vv pCO2." |
|
|
Term
"In marine mammals, what allows them to stay underwater?" |
|
Definition
Two things: the diving reflex (slows the heart and constricts blood vessels to all but critical tish); and hypometabolism (allows a metabolic rate lower than BMR). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Muscle, nerve, epithelial, and connective" |
|
|
Term
How much water's in a 70kg dude? |
|
Definition
"42L. 2/3 ICF; 1/3 ECF . Of the ECF, it's like 3/14 plasma and 11/14 Interstitial" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Hormones that only affect target cells near the site of release. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Hormones that affect the cells that release them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Cells that have receptors for endocrine hormones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Chemical signals that diffuse into the blood, and affect receptors far from the site of release" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Glands whose ducts release their products to the outside of the body. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Secretory cell clumps that release hormones to the extracellular space. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Water soluble, blood-transported hormones. Cannot cross membranes." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Lipid-soluble; must be bound to carrier proteins to be carried in blood. Can diffuse across membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"For water soluble hormone receptors, this is the section that projects outside the plasma membrane" |
|
|
Term
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) |
|
Definition
ANT PIT: Activates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T3 or T4). Regulated by TRH (+) |
|
|
Term
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) |
|
Definition
"ANT PIT: In females, stimulates ovarian follicle maturation; in dudes, spermatogenesis. Regulated by GnRH (+)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"ANT PIT: In ladies, triggers ovulation/ovarian prod of estrogens/progesterone. Dudes, production of testosterone. In short, makes you make sex hormone. Regulated by GnRH (+)" |
|
|
Term
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
|
Definition
ANT PIT: stimulates adrenal CORTEX to secrete cortisol. Regulated by CRH (+) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ANT PIT: stimulates protein synthesis and growth. Regulated by GHRH (+) and somatostatin (or GHIH; -) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ANT PIT: stimulates milk production. Regulated by PRH (+) and PIH (-) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"POST PIT: stimulates contraction of uterus, flow of milk." |
|
|
Term
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) |
|
Definition
POST PIT: promotes water conservation by kidneys |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
THYMUS: activates immune system T cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
PANC: binds to receptors on target cells to allow uptake of glucose. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
PANC: stimulates liver to release glucose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
PANC and HYPOTHAL: slows digestive tract functions including release of insulin and glucagon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
PINEAL: helps regulate circadian rhythms. Produced from tryptophan. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"THYROID: stimulates cell metabolism (T3 1 fewer iodine, more active than T4)" |
|
|
Term
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
|
Definition
"PARATHY: stimulates release of Ca2+ from bone, stimulates kidneys to reabsorb Ca2+, activates Vitamin D (so gut absorbs Ca2+), stimulates removal of PO4s from the blood (which cause kidney stones)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ADR CORTEX: mediates metabolic responses to stress. a glucocorticoid. reduces non-essential cells' use of blood glucose (eg immune cells) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"ADR CORTEX: ""involved"" in salt and water balance. a mineralocorticoid." |
|
|
Term
Epinephrine and norepinephrine |
|
Definition
ADR MEDULLA: stimulates fight or flight response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
OVARY: develop and maintain female sexual characteristics (converted to this from testosterone!) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
OVARY: supports pregnancy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
BALLS: develop and maintain male sexual characteristics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Hormones synthesized by neurons. EG the hypothalamus synthesizes all the tropic hormones in the pituitary. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"From the anterior pituitary, they control other endocrine glands." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"blood vessels that control the entry and exit of shit from a gland or organ. (cf. kidney, pituitary)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Another name for the hormones produced by the hypothalamus and delivered to the ant. pit. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Enlarged thyroid caused by hyper- or hypothyroidism. Epithelial cells produce too much thyroglobulin, and the follicles enlarge" |
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Term
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Definition
"THYROID: inhibits osteoclasts, so osteoblasts can build up bone. ""Calcitonin TONES UP your BONES.""" |
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Term
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Definition
"AKA Calciferol, produced by skin cells from cholesterol by UV light. Combines with receptor to form xscription factor to synthesize Ca2+ pumps, channels, and binding proteins to enhance gut's uptake of Ca2+" |
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Term
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Definition
Clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas. |
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Term
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Definition
Islets that produce insulin |
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Term
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Definition
Islets that produce glucagon |
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Term
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Definition
Islets that produce somatostatin (also released by hypothal) |
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Term
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Definition
The physiological changes in a critter triggered by seasonal channges. |
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Term
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Definition
Increase of receptors d/t low hormone secretion (you want to make sure you get ALL that hormone uptooken) |
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Term
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Definition
Decrease of receptors d/t flooding system with continuous high levels of hormone (you donÕt want to overuptake the hormone!) |
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Term
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Definition
The production of haploid gametes through meiotic cell division. |
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Term
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Definition
"The dividend of ovagenesis, accompanies 2o oocyte and ootid. Degrades." |
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Term
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Definition
Union of haploid sperm and haploid egg. Diploid. |
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Term
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Definition
The species-specific recognition molecules on the acrosomal process (the head). Their receptors are on the vitelline envelope. |
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Term
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Definition
The fusion of sperm and egg plasma membranes |
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Term
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Definition
"In internal fertilization, the cells in a gelatinous matrix surrounding the egg." |
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Term
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Definition
The glycoprotein envelope underneath the cumulus. |
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Term
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Definition
Creates a centrosome in the zygote that becomes the nucleation point for mitosis. |
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Term
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Definition
"NOT IN MAMMALS!! Post-removal of the sperm-binding receptors, the vitelline envelope hardens into this." |
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Term
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Definition
"Laying critters, not eggs." |
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Term
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Definition
Organ that develops in the uterus; the exchanger of nutrients and waste (border patrol) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Laying eggs with a living critter inside. |
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Term
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Definition
Where sperm cells are stored to become mature and motile. |
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Term
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Definition
Connects epididymis to urethra. |
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Term
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Definition
"The duct for the reproductive and urinary systems in dudes. In ladies, just for peeing." |
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Term
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Definition
where spermatogenesis occurs |
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Term
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Definition
What sertoli cells produce to exert negative feedback v. GnRH (in hypo) and FSH (in ant. pit.) |
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Term
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Definition
Fallopian tube (where the egg is fertilized and proceeds toward the uterus) |
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Term
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Definition
The first divisions of the zygote. |
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Term
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Definition
Lining of the uterus. Gets queefed out monthly. |
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Term
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Definition
"Maturation of a 1o oocyte into an egg, and expulsion from the ovary" |
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Term
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) |
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Definition
"Secreted by the cells on the blastocyst: keeps the corpus luteum and endometrium alive and kickin'. Released after implantation of embryo, early indicator of preggo" |
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Term
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Definition
"FROG EGG: lower half of the egg, where there are nutrients." |
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Term
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Definition
"FROG EGG: upper half, has the nucleus. " |
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Term
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Definition
FROG EGG: outside cytoplasm. heavily pigmented has high [protein] |
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Term
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Definition
FROG EGG: diffusely pigmented region of animal hemisphere |
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Term
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Definition
FROG EGG: band of pigmented cytoplasm opposite site of sperm entry |
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Term
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Definition
"Key xscription factor from maternal mRNA. Also, in APC in stem cells in your intestines. USEFUL." |
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Term
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Definition
"Phosphorylates and degrades beta-catenin throughout cytoplasm. Inhibited by protein in the vegetal pole vesicles, which move to the dorsal/gray crescent side. Thus, GSK only eats b-catenin in the ventral (spermy) side. In the end, dorsal cells have higher [beta-cat] than ventral!" |
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Term
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Definition
A rapid series of cell division with no cell growth |
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Term
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Definition
The embryo as a solid ball of small cells. |
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Term
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Definition
"The morula forms this, a central fluid-filled cavity" |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
"Division of cells in eggs with little yolk (eg, in mammals, or sea urchins)" |
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Term
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Definition
Eggs w/ lots of yolk have this: cleavage furrows can't penetrate |
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Term
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Definition
V. dense yolk: embryo forms as a blastodisc on top of the yolk |
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Term
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Definition
"In drosophila (et al.): forms a syncytium (multinucleate) cell, and the plasma membrane grows inward around the nuclei." |
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Term
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Definition
Mitotic spindles form parallel or perpendicular to the animal-vegetal axis. |
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Term
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Definition
Cell layers form to the left or right. |
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Term
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Definition
Mammalian: first a radial division; then another radial at right angles to the first. |
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Term
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Definition
Produced by labeling blastomeres to identify the tissues and organs they generate. |
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Term
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Definition
"In frogs, vegetal pole: forms lining of gut, liver, and lungs and pancreas." |
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Term
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Definition
"Near gray crescent: forms muscle, bone, kidneys, blood, nads, and connective tissues" |
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Term
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Definition
"ATTRACTODERM. At animal pole: forms epidermal layer of skin, as well as the nervous system, and eyes and ears." |
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Term
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Definition
Each blastomere contributes certain aspects to the adult animal. |
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Term
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Definition
Cells compensate for lost cells. |
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Term
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Definition
What happens to blastomeres (blastocyst cells): they become committed to specific development at different times. |
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Term
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Definition
Movement of cells to create an embryo |
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Term
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Definition
"It's the labia of the blastopore. Its tissue is the ""primary embryonic organizer,"" uses lots of xscription factors." |
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Term
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Definition
Initiation of the nervous system. Occurs in early organogenesis. |
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Term
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Definition
The precursor of the vertebral column. Comes from mesoderm nearest the midline (chordamesoderm). |
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Term
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Definition
The thickened ectoderm over the notochord. |
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Term
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Definition
The fused folds of the neural plate. |
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Term
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Definition
Failure of the neural tube to fuse in the back. |
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Term
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Definition
"Um, no closure of neural tube, so no forebrain. Yikes." |
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Term
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Definition
"separate segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Forms muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of skin." |
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Term
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Definition
The cells bwn the neural plate and the neural tube. Get guided by somites to become peripheral nerves. |
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Term
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Definition
"In mice, control differentiation along anterior/posterior body axis. Gradients of different Hox products dictate what gets put where." |
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Term
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Definition
What the embryo becomes in the first trimester. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Active moving of the respiratory medium over the gas exchange surfaces |
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Term
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Definition
Circulating blood over the gas exchange surfaces |
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Term
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Definition
Air flows in and out by the same path. |
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Term
|
Definition
"The amount of air that moves in and out per breath, in an ""average"" breath." |
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Term
Inspiratory/Expiratory Reserve Volumes |
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Definition
The add'l amounts of air that we can inhale or exhale. |
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Term
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Definition
The air that cannot be expelled from the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
Vital capacity + Residual volume |
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Term
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Definition
Group of cells with cilia that sweep the mucus and particles out of the airway. |
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Term
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Definition
Makes alveoli expand and contract more efficiently -- makes 'em more elastic. Reduces the surface tension of a liquid |
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Term
ARDS (Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome) |
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Definition
Preemies often don't have the ability to make lung surfactant. We spray the lungs w/it and they're FINE. |
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Term
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Definition
"Two of them, containers for lungs" |
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Term
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Definition
Sheet of muscle at the bottom of the thoracic cavities; causes pressure changes that result in breathing |
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Term
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Definition
"Lines each thoracic cavity and covers each lung, enclosing the pleural space" |
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Term
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Definition
Muscles between ribs. External lift ribs up and outward; internal pull ribs down and inward. |
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Term
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Definition
"In Hgb, when one subunit binds O2, Hgb changes shape, making it easier for the next one to bind -- until 3/4 are bound, when it needs a big jump in pO2 to bind one more. Results in a sigmoid graph." |
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Term
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Definition
"Has one O2 binding site, but has a higher affinity for O2 (so holds on to O2 when Hgb would let it go -- keeping it for times of high metabolic demand)." |
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Term
|
Definition
"In endothelial and red blood cells, it speeds up the conversion from CO2 to HCO3-." |
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Term
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Definition
"Part of the brain stem, controls breathing. Ventral surface is v. sensitive to pCO2 (and thus signals increase or decrease in RR)" |
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Term
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Definition
"In this, ECF combines with the circulatory system fluid, squeezes through intercellular spaces when the critter moves, and returns to the heart via ""ostia"" (open vessels)" |
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Term
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Definition
Carries blood away from the heart. Artery --> arteriole --> Capillary beds. |
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Term
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Definition
1 RBC thick vessels. Site of exchange bwn blood and tissue fluid. |
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Term
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Definition
Drain the capillary beds. Venules --> Veins --> Heart |
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Term
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Definition
"Lie between the atria and ventricles, and prevent backflow when ventricles contract." |
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Term
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Definition
Lies between right ventricle and pulmonary artery to prevent backflow when ventricles relax |
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Term
|
Definition
"Lies bwn left ventricle and aorta, to prevent backflow when ventricle relaxes." |
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Term
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Definition
"When ventricles contract and relax, respectively." |
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Term
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Definition
Pressure needed to compress an artery so blood does not flow. |
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Term
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Definition
Pressure needed to allow the first dribs of blood through an artery. |
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Term
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Definition
Cells that start action potentials with nervous system input |
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Term
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Definition
"The primary pacemaker cells in the heart. Resting membrane pot is less negative and unstable, so cells gradually reach threshold. They're braoder and slower to return to resting potential." |
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Term
|
Definition
Liquid extracellular matrix of blood. |
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Term
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Definition
Part of the blood made of cells. |
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Term
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Definition
Hormone released in the kidney d/t low pO2 (hypoxia) that controls RBC production. |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
"Arteries and arterioles -- they have elastin/collagen enhanced walls that allow them to stretch and recoil. Also, smooth muscle cells in the walls allow them to dilate or constrict." |
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Term
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Definition
Vein: they're expandable and blood can accumulate in them. |
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Term
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Definition
The system that returns interstitial fluid to the blood. |
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Term
|
Definition
Interstitial fluid that enters the vessels. |
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Term
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Definition
"They're the site of lymphocyte production; also, they remove microorganisms and foreign materials by phagocytosis. FILTERS. Really, the SEWER." |
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Term
|
Definition
"Hardening of the arteries: endothelium gets damaged, and plaque forms at the sites. These damaged cells attract migration of smooth muscle cells, which have cholesterol and calcium deposits. This all makes the artery wall less elastic, or hardened." |
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Term
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Definition
A blood clot that forms from platelets sticking to arterial plaque. |
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Term
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Definition
Supplies blood to the heart muscle. |
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Term
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Definition
"A thrombus forms in the coronary artery, leading to a myocardial infarction." |
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Term
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Definition
Piece of a thrombus. Causes an embolism if it lodges in a blood vessel. |
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Term
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Definition
A brain embolism; kills the cells fed by that artery |
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Term
Autoregulatory mechanisms |
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Definition
"Local actions in the capillary bed that cause the arterioles to constrict or dilate. Response to blood distribution, RR, or HR." |
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Term
|
Definition
Smooth muscle valves that shut off blood flow from an arterial to a capillary. Part of autoregulation |
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Term
|
Definition
"Low pO2 and high pCO2 cause relaxation of smooth muscles, which ^^ pO2 and vv pCO2" |
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Term
Baroreceptors in carotid arteries and aorta. |
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Definition
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|
Term
Chemoreceptors in carotid arteries and aorta |
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Definition
Send information about blood composition |
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Term
|
Definition
External chg --> triggers chg in regulated internal variable --> triggers rxn to oppose chg and return regulated variable to normal (set point) |
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Term
"What's an example of negative feedback (say, with temperature)?" |
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Definition
Body temperature rises above 37degC. Error signal increases. Reg mechanism activates. Temp decreases to normal; error signal disappears |
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Term
|
Definition
Information that anticipates internal changes and changes the set point. |
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Term
|
Definition
Animals that regulate body temperature within a narrow range |
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Term
|
Definition
Animals that don't regulate body temperature |
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Term
|
Definition
External sources of heat. |
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Term
|
Definition
Regulate temperature by producing heat metabolically or by actively losing it |
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Term
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Definition
Use external sources of heat as well as produce it metabolically (or actively loses it) |
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Term
Four ways to transfer heat |
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Definition
evaporation (of water -- #1!!); Radiation (EM waves); conduction (through contact); convection (fluid or air movement) |
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Term
T/F: BMR in big critters is higher. |
|
Definition
False: BMR per gram of tissue increases as animals get smaller. |
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Term
|
Definition
The temperature range an animal can easily adapt within (beyond which one needs bigger metabolic increases) |
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Term
Two ways mammals produce heat: |
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Definition
"Shivering (skeletal muscles contract and release energy from ATP as heat); nonshivering (thermogenin in brown fat alters ATP production, causes heat release)" |
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|
Term
Range of outside temperature where alterations in blood flow alone regulate body temp? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
WBCs secrete this: it's a fever inducer (which enhances immune response) |
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Term
Ionotropic sensory receptor proteins |
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Definition
"Are either ion channels or directly affect ion channels (mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, electrosensors)" |
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Term
Metabotropic sensory receptor proteins |
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Definition
"Affect ion channels through G proteins and 2o messengers (chemoreceptors, photoreceptors)" |
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Term
|
Definition
"Diminishing response to repeated stimulus. Not all sensory cells do this (mechanoreceptors for balance, eg)" |
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Term
|
Definition
"Operant --> receptor --> G-protein --> ^^ cAMP --> opens ion channel, generates action potential in sensory neuron --(ms later)--> ion channel closes, cAMP degrades" |
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Term
|
Definition
Part of the brain: dendrites of it end in olfactory hairs on the nasal epithelium. |
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Term
Taste bud is made of what? |
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Definition
Microvilli coming out of a taste pore on the epithelium of the tongue. Leads to dendrites of a sensory neuron --> CNS |
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Term
|
Definition
"Mechanoreceptor: adapts slowly, and provides *continuous* information" |
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Term
|
Definition
Mechanoreceptor: adapts quickly and provides information about changes |
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Term
|
Definition
"Mechanoreceptor: adapts slowly, and reacts to vibrating stimuli of low F" |
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Term
|
Definition
Mechanoreceptor: adapts quickly and reacts to vibrating stimuli of HIGH F |
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Term
|
Definition
"The ""ears"" as we know them: sound funnels" |
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Term
|
Definition
"Covers the end of the auditory canal, vibrates in response to pressure waves" |
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Term
|
Definition
Links middle ear to throat: equilibrates air pressure bwn middle ear and outside |
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Term
|
Definition
"Malleus, incus, stapes (hammer, anvil, stirrup): transmit vibrations of tympanic membrane to oval window" |
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Term
|
Definition
Translates air pressure waves into fluid pressure waves in the inner ear |
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Term
|
Definition
Tapered/coiled chamber of three parallel canals separated by two membranes. In inner ear. |
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Term
|
Definition
sits on the basilar membrane; transduces pressure waves into action potentials. In inner ear. |
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Term
|
Definition
"Pressure waves from the tympanic membrane --> ossicles --> oval window --> cochlea --> fluid pressure waves flex the basilar membrane at different locations, hit nerve fibers at different points, are released through round window" |
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Term
|
Definition
mechanoreceptors in hearing/balance organs |
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Term
|
Definition
"Bending these opens/closes ion channels. layer of Ca crystals on top, and movements &c bend them. When the membrane depolarizes, neurotransmitters are released" |
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Term
|
Definition
"Three in mammals, at angles to each other, sense position and orientation of head" |
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Term
|
Definition
Two chambers that sense position of head and acceleration. |
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|
Term
"What is rhodopsin made of, and what does one of them change into?" |
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Definition
"Opsin and 11-cis-retinal. It absorbs hv and changes to all-trans-retinal, which changes the conformation of opsin." |
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|
Term
What are rod cells made of? |
|
Definition
A nucleus and synapse at the inner segment/base and a stack of plasma membrane disks packed with rhodopsin in the outer segment. |
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|
Term
What happens when rhodopsin absorbs hv? |
|
Definition
"Activates G protein (transducin) --> PDE --> cGMP converts to GMP --> Na+ channels close , hyperpolarizing membrane -->" |
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Term
|
Definition
The grand majority of the eye. Made of glycosaminoglycans. |
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Term
|
Definition
"Optic nerve head, where there aren't any rod/cone cells" |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Tough connective tish at back of eye that becomes cornea in front. |
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Term
|
Definition
"Controls size of pupil, so how much light enters eye" |
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Term
|
Definition
"Crystalline protein, accommodates thanks to ciliary muscles, focuses image" |
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Term
|
Definition
Photoreceptor sheet: 5 layers of cells for light to pass through to get to photoreceptors; signal comes back through all five layers to the optic nerve |
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Term
|
Definition
Sensitive to color; low sensitivity to light. 3 types at diff wavelengths |
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Term
|
Definition
Sensitive to light (night vision); low sensitivity to color |
|
|
Term
What are the 5 functions of the urinary system? |
|
Definition
"1) Regulate plasma ionic composition |
|
|
Term
"Other than filter, what does the kidney do? (*4)" |
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Definition
|
|
Term
Osmolarity of ICF and ECF |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
"Xport from internal environment to external environment (remember, lots of things are external environment that seem inside, like the gut)" |
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Term
|
Definition
Critters that allow their ionic composition to match the environment |
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Term
|
Definition
Those that conserve some ions and excrete others to maintain ionic composition |
|
|
Term
Most common nitrogenous waste? |
|
Definition
"NH3 -- but most terrestrial animals turn it to urea or uric acid (we do urea, with a little uric acid and ammonia)" |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Main functional unit of the kidney. |
|
|
Term
Process of kidney filtration of blood |
|
Definition
Afferent arteriole --> glomerulus --> efferent arteriole (and peritubular capillaries) |
|
|
Term
Process of urine concentration |
|
Definition
"Filtrate from glomerulus --> renal tubule (modified by tubular cells xporting things, and peritubular capillaries bringing and taking things) --> PCT --> loop of Henle --> DCT --> collecting duct (in cortex) --> renal pelvis --> ureter --> peehole" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Bowman's capsule cells that contact the glomerular capillaries, have fine processes that wrap around them and stabilize things" |
|
|
Term
Why is filtration rate so high in the glomerulus? |
|
Definition
"High capillary blood pressure, and the high permeability of the glom capillaries and their podocytes." |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
composition of the medulla of the kidney |
|
|
Term
What's in the cortex of the kidney? |
|
Definition
Glomeruli and PCTs and DCTs |
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|
Term
How much blood does the kidney receive? |
|
Definition
20% of cardiac output at rest. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Reabsorption of water and solutes. ACTIVE XPORT of Na+, glucose, AAs; water follows" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Descending limb: water flows out; Ascending limb, salt flows out (passive in thin; active in thick)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Filtrate entering this has the same Osm, but different composition, as plasma. Water flows out, as does some urea (recycles to the thin ascending limb)" |
|
|
Term
T/F: Glucose is completely reabsorbed in the kidney. |
|
Definition
"True (if all goes well), in the PCT." |
|
|
Term
Where does the most solute reabsorption occur in the kidney? |
|
Definition
"In the PCT. It has a leaky epithelium, making it perfect for that" |
|
|
Term
How do kidneys regulate blood pH? |
|
Definition
"Removes H+ and adds HCO3-. (the base portion; lungs control level of CO2, as more CO2 --> more H+)" |
|
|
Term
What does renal failure lead to? |
|
Definition
"Retention of salt and water (HTN), urea (uremic poisoning), metabolic acids (acidosis)" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Glomerular filtration rate. Ensures blood is kept under adequate pressure for starling forces to work |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
How much is filtered a day? |
|
Definition
180 L/day; only 1.5L excreted! |
|
|
Term
What effect does an increase in BP do to GFR? |
|
Definition
Nothing: the afferent arterioles will constrict or relax to maintain GFR. |
|
|
Term
What happens if the GFR falls? What does kidney do? What does the hypothalamus do? |
|
Definition
"It releases renin, which activates angiotensin, which constricts EFFERENT renal arterioles/peripheral blood vessels; stimulates aldosterone to increase B77Na+ uptake (which makes you thirsty, increasing blood volume) |
|
|
Term
Baroreceptors in aorta and carotid do what to ADH? |
|
Definition
Inhibits it if BP increases. |
|
|
Term
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide |
|
Definition
"Atrial muscle fibers release it when blood volume in atria increases. Decreases reabsorption of Na+, which increases loss of Na+/H2O and decreases BP." |
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|