• Paired oval glands
• Manufacture sperm
• Secrete testosterone hormone

• Epididymis
• tightly coiled ducts
• sperm mature here
• vas deferens
• tubular structure
• sperm stored here

• delivers sperm to female reproductive tract
• spongy tissue fills with blood and organ becoms stiff and erect
• sperm travels by peristalsis from vas deferens to ejaculatory duct to urethra 

• secrete fluid that neurtalizes acidic vagina
• provides fructose for sperm ATP production
• contributes to sperm motility and viability
• helps semen coagulate for better delivery after ejaculation

• Mixture of sperm and accessory sex gland secretions
• Volume is 50-150 million per mL
• Under 20 million sperm per mL is not enough to fertilize egg
• pH of 7.2 to 7.7

Seminiferous Tubules

• Lined with spermatogenic cells

• Found between the sperm cells in seminiferous tubules
• support, protect, and nourish spermatogenic cells
• release inhibin hormone
• regulates sperm production

• production of sperm
• 300 million sperm produced per day
• do not survive more than 48 hours in female reproductive tract

• Two parts: head and tail
• head contains DNA
• Tail has four parts
• neck
• behind head
• middle piece
• contains the mitochondria that contain ATP
• principal piece
• longest portion of tail
• end piece
• last segment

• sperm made in testes
• released into seminiferous tubule lumen
• mature in epididymis
• stored in vas deferens
• travels through ejaculatory duct during ejaculation into urethra and mixes with secretions from:
• seminal vesicles
• prostate
• bulbourethral glands
• semen is formed and leaves penis 

• FSH and testosterone stimulate spermatogenisis 

• Ovaries
• uterine/fallopian tubes
• uterus
• vagina
• vulva/pupendum
• mammary glands

• Paired organs that produce:
• secondary oocytes
• become mature eggs/ova if fertilized
• hormones
• progesterone
• estrogen
• inhinin
• relaxin

• Hold ovaries in position
• Ovarian ligament
• anchors ovaries to uterus
• suspensory ligament
• anchors ovaries to pelvic wall
• broad ligament
• attaches ovaries to uterus with a double-layered peritoneum

Oocyte Development

• All oocytes are formed by the time the female is born
• Oocytes therefore are not produced continuously throughout life as in male spermatocytes
• Oocytes do not mature until puberty
• One oocyte develps each month from puberty until menopause

• Also known as fallopian tubes
• extend laterally from uterus to ovaries 
• infundibulum
• open, funnel shaped tube end
• close in location to ovary, but open to pelvic cavity
• Fimbriae
• finger like projection with sweeping movements to catch and direct released oocyte form ovary into unterine tube
• uterin tubes transport oocyte into uterus

• Found between the urinary bladder and rectum
• Inverted pear shape
• site of implantation of fertilized ovum
• site of fetus development

Parts of the uterus

• Fundus
• dome-shaped portion
• superior to uterin tubes
• Body
• taperin central portion
• Cervix
• narrow portion opening into vagina
• Uterine cavity
• interior of body of uterus 

• Smooth muscle layer
• Forms bulk of uterine wall
• Important in labor contractions

• Innermost layer of uterine wall
• mucous membrane layer
• responsible for nourishing fetus
• shed each month during menses

• found between urinary bladder and rectum.
• canal that extends from exterior of body to cervix of uterus
• receptalce for penis and semen during sexual intercourse
• outlet for menstrual flow
• passageway for child birth

• thin fold of mucous membrane that partially covers vaginal orifice
• usually breaks and bleeds during first sexual intercourse
• can also break during sports or other physical activity

• Located in breasts
• part of the female reproductive system
• modified sweat glands
• develop during puberty
• produce milk
• contain 15-20 lobes 

Fertilization

• secondary oocyte is only viable for 24 hours after ovulation
• sperm are viable up to 48 hours after being deliverto female
• require 6 hours to move from vagina to uterine tube
• semen delivered in vagina near cervix and coagulates
• sperm swim from vagina through cervix to uterine tube

• can detect high levels of LH
• can predict ovulation 1 day in advance

• prevention of fertilization or interruption of fertilization process

• oral contraceptives with various levels of estrogen and progestin
• negative feedback inhibition of FSH and LH secretion
• prevention of a dominant follicle development

• urethritis in males, pelvic inflammatory disease in females
• treated with antibiotics

• urethritis with excess pus discharge, may be symptomless in females leading to sterility
• treated with antibiotics

• painless open sore
• rash, fever, joint pain
• ogans deteriorate
• treated with antibiotics if caugh before organs deteriorate

• painful blisters on external genitalia
• possible internal blistering in females
• controled with anti inflammatory drugs

• cauliflower-like growth in external genitalia and internal growth in females
• warts can be removed cryogenically

• 38 weeks
• due date is calculated from first day of mothers last menstrual period
• fertilized egg changes from 1 cell to 1 trillion
• embryonic period
• lasts from fertilization to 8 weeks
• fetal period
• 8 weeks to birth

• increased pigmentation around the eyes and cheekbones
• increased pigmentation in the areolae
• increased pigmentation in the lower abdomen
• strech marks in the lower abdomen as fetus grows
• hair loss

• stroke volume increases by 30%
• cardiac output rises by 20-30%
• increased blood flow to placenta
• increased metabolism

• total body oxygen consumption increases by 10-20%
• more difficulty breathing as fetus grows

• increase in appetite
• pressure on stomach can lead to gastric reflux (heartburn)
• nausea, vomitting, heartburn

• pressure on bladder
• increased frequency of urination
• increased urgency of urination
• stress incontinence 

• edema of vagina
• increased blood flow to vagina
• increased numbers of muscle fibers in uterus
• enlargement of uterus
• increase in uterine mass

• weight gain due to fetus
• amniotic fluid
• placenta
• uterine enlargement
• increased total body water
• increased nutrient storage
• breast enlargement for lactation
• lower back pain

• maintains corpus luteum
• peaks at 4th month of pregnancy

• secreted initially by corpus luteum and later by the chorion throughout the pregnancy

• Secreted by corpus luteum and placenta
• sogtens pubic symphysis
• relaxes sacroiliac ligaments
• dilates cervix for labor

Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS)

• secreted by the chorion
• secretion increases as placenta grows 
• help prepare breast tissue for milk production and lactation

• secreted by placenta at 12 weeks of pregnancy
• secretion increases until end of pregnancy
• important for timing of birth process

• Process of giving birth, where fetus is expelled from uterus through vagina
• estrogens stimulate placenta to secrete prostaglandins
• prostaglandins act as local hormones to induce enzyme secretions to digest collagen fibers to cervix
• cervix therefore softens
• estrogens induce oxytocin receptors on uterine muscle fibers
• relaxin hormone increases flexibility of pubic symphysis and sids in cervix dilation
• labor is an example of a positive feedback loop uterine contractions induced by oxytocin cause the cervix to stretch, which in turn induces more uterine contractions

• Dilation stage
• expulsion stage
• placental stage

• cervix dilates for baby to pass
• lasts 6-12 hours
• regular contraction of uterus
• rupturing of amniotic sac
• complete dilation of cervix

• baby is expelled 
• 10 minutes to several hours after complete cervical dilation

• placenta or afterbirth is expelles by uterine contractions
• contractions also constrict blood vessels torn during delivery to reduce chance of hemorrhaging

• the act of givine birth; delivery
• labor lasts longer with the first baby; around 14 hours
• after first birth, parturition tends to be shorter; around 8 hours
• fetus is usually positioned head down towards vagina
• any other orientation of fetus is known as breech

• weighs less than 5.5 pounds for 2500 g at birth
• usually needs medical care to survive, as body not adequately developed

• poor prenatal care
• maternal drug abuse
• history of previous premature delivery
• maternal age under 16 or over 35

• 7% of pregnant women do not deliver by two weeks after the due date
• inadequate supply of oxygen and nutrient from aging placenta
• increased risk of brain damage
• increased risk of fetal death
• delivery can be facilitated
• induced labor through oxytocin
• cesarean section

• Prolactin hormone maintains milk by mammary glands
• milk is produced after birth, after inhibitory levels of estrogens and pregesterone are removed
• lactation is another example of an oxytocin positive feedback mechanism; suckling causes oxytocin to be released for milk ejection, which in turn encourages more suckling and more milk ejection

• nutrient rich fluid secreted form maternal mammary glands during the first few days after birth
• less lactose and no fat as compaired to milk
• high in protein content
• readily digested until true milk comes in 4 days after birth

• sterile
• ideal for infant digestion, brain development, and growth
• more nutritional than synthetic formulas
• contains
• fatty acids
• lactose
• amino acids
• minerals
• vitamins
• water
• maternal antibodies

• filtration of blood plasma
• reabsorption of essential substances
• secretion of nonessential substances
• all help to maintain body homeostasis and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance

• pair of reddish organs
• shaped like kidney beans, size of bar soap in adults
• found on each side of the vertebral column 
• 11th and 12th pair of ribs protect superior portion of kidneys
• right kidney is slighly lower than left, due to liver occupying more space on the right

• regulation of blood volume
• regulation of blood pressure
• regulation of blood composition and blood pH
• production of two hormones
• excretion of wastes

• two main regions
• renal cortex
• receives majority of blood supply
• Renal medulla
• contains tubules that collect and concentrate filtrate fluid to become urine
• Renal pelvis
• minor calyx
• cup like structure in rim of renal pelvis
• urine drains into here from medulla through ducts
• major calyx
• cup like structure in rim of renal pelvis
• receives urine from minor calyx and connects to ureter

• 20-25% of resting cardiac output flows through kidneys via renal arteries and veins
• afferent arterioles divide into the glomerulus, a capillary network
• glomeruli then unite to form the efferent arteriole

• functional units that make up the kidney
• extends from cortex into medulla
• cortical nephrons
• short loops of henle that extend minimally into medulla
• juxtamedullary nephrons
• long loops of henle that extend deep into medulla
• two parts 
• renal corpuscle
• renal tubule

Renal corpuscle

• blood plasma filtered here
• two parts
• glomerulus
• glomerular/bowman's capsule
• blood enters here, then goes to renal tubule

• urine then travels through renal tubule segments in the following order
• proximal convoluted tubule
• nephron loop
• distal convoluted tubule
• urine then goes from these renal tubule structures to the collecting duct

• Kidney filters blood plasma
• reabsorbs
• water
• ions
• glucose
• secretes
• nitrogen based waste products
• drugs 
• toxins

• Glomerular filtration
• tubular reabsorption
• tubular secretion

• blood pressure forces water and dissolved substances across glomerular capillary wall into renal corpuscle

• Tubule cell membranes absorbs solutes and water
• 99% is returned to blood

• as fluid flows across tubules and collecting duct, wastes, drugs, and excess ions in blood are secreted into filtrate to eventually be removed from the body

• kidneys filter 180 L in males and 150 L in females each day
• filtration is powered by net pressures within the renal corpuscle
• Tubular reabsorption and secretion are driven by the membrane transport processes across renal tubule cells

• occurs in renal corpuscle and deals with fluid moving from the glomerulus into glomerular capsule
• three layer filtration membrane
• blood pressure drives filtration in the glomerular capillaries

• excessuve anounts of the large protein albumin found in urine
• indication that the filtration membrane is damaged due to 
• injury 
• disease
• high blood pressure
• kidney cell damage

• rate at which fluid is filtered in renal corpuscle
• 105 ml/min in females, 125 ml/min in males
• speed of GFR is crucial to how much is reabsorbed

• Water
• ions
• glucose
• amino acids

• waste substances
• nitrogen based waste products
• drugs
• ions

• 2/3 of water and solutes reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule
• secretion of urea, creatinine, ammonium ion, and hydrogen ion also occure in the PCT
• the fluid here is isomotic to blood plasma

• aldosterone
• Na is reabsorbed and K is secreted in distal convoluted tuble and collecting ducts
• parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• causes calcium ions to be reabsorbed in DCT
• antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• causes water to be reabsorbed in DCT and collecting ducts

• Hollow muscular organ in pelvic cavity
• holds around 700-800 mL of urine
• peritoneal folds hold bladder in place
• males
• directly in front of rectum
• females
• front of vagina, below uterus
• smaller than in males due to its position below uterus

• three layers of smooth muscle called detrusor muscle
• allows bladder to expand and appear round and pear shaped as it fills with urine
• when empty, looks like a deflated balloon
• contractions generate pressure to expel urine through urethra and out the body

• small tube leading from floor of bladder to exterior of body
• internal urethral sphincter around opening of urethra
• involuntary smooth muscle
• external urethral sphincter
• voluntary skeletal muscle
• In males it also serves as the duct for urine, as well as semen

• urination

• as urine accumulates in the bladderk, a reflex is stimulated to start the process of micturition
• smooth muscles and sphincter muscles are innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system
• cerebral cortex can temporarily suppress the reflex

• inability to retain urine through loss of sphincter control

• water composes 45-75% of total body mass, depending on age, gender, and fitness level
• body fluids are found in three major compartments
• intracellular fluid
• 2/3 of body fluid here
• extracellular fluid
• 1/3 of body fluid here

• compound that seperates into ions when dissolved in water and conducts electricity

• osmotic gradient, and therefore water movement, is regulated by distribution of electrolytes in
• plasma
• interstitial fluid
• intracellular fluid

• homeostasis is maintained by equal gain and loss of about 2500 mL of water

• water loss is greater than water gain

• located in hypothalamus
• sense fluid level changes and stimulates posterior pituitary to secrete ADH

• kidney or bladder stones
• when concentrated urine is produced, calcium and phosphorus oxalates crystallize out of solution to form stones
• treatment
• urinary acidifier medication
• breaking into smaller pieces using sonication, ultrasound, and lasers
• pass naturally through tubing

• blood pH is below 7.35

alkalosis

• blood pH is higher than 7.45