Term
| Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Definition
| Composed of the brain and spinal cord |
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Term
| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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Definition
Located outside skull and spine.
Carries signals into and out of CNS.
Two Divisions: Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems. |
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Term
| Somatic Nervous System (SNS) |
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Definition
"Soma" means body.
Interacts with external environment.
Composed of Afferent nerves that carry sensory signals to the CNS.
Composed of Efferent Nerves that carry motor signals from CNS to the skeletal muscles |
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Term
| Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) |
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Definition
"Auto" like automatic- parts of the body we can't voluntarily move.
Regulates body's internal environment.
Afferent nerves send sensory signals from internal organs to CNS.
Efferent Nerves carry motor signals from CNS to organs.
Two kinds of two-stage neural paths:
Sympathetic Nerves and Parasympathetic Nerves that project from CNS and go part of the way, then synapse on other, second-stage neurons that carry signals the rest of the way. |
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Term
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Definition
Project from CNS in lumbar (small of back) and thoracic (chest) regions of the spinal cord.
Fight or Flight.
Synapse far from target organ.
Stimulate, organize, and mobilize energy resources in life threatening situations.
Psychological arousal. |
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Term
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Definition
Project from brain and sacral (lower back) region of spinal cord.
In control most of the time.
Rest and Restore.
Synapse close to target organ.
Act to conserve energy.
Psychological relaxation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A, like approach the brain |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Twelve paris.
Unlike most nerves in PNS, which project from S.C., these project from the brain.
Both motor and sensory fibers.
Numbered in sequence from front to back
Autonomic motor fibers are parasympathetic.
Often used for diagnosis because of function and location |
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Term
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Definition
Three protective layers of membrane below the skull:
Dura mater, arachnoid membrane, pia mater |
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Term
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Definition
(Tough Mother)
Tough outer meninx. |
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Term
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Definition
(Spiderweblike)
Fine meninx beneath dura mater.
Beneath this is subarachnoid space which contains many large blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluids. |
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Term
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Definition
(Pious Mother)
Delicate, translucent, innermost meninx that adheres to surface of CNS |
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Term
| Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) |
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Definition
Fills subarachnoid space, central canal of spinal cord (small central channel running the length of the s.c.), and cerebral ventricles of the brain (connected by a series of openings).
Supports and cushions brain, cleanses.
Continuously produced by choroid plexeuses- networks of capiliaries that protrude into ventricles from pia mater.
Dural sinuses in dura mater drain excess CSF into jugular veins of the neck.
Blockage can lead to many problems like hydrocephalus (water head), which causes the brain to expand, and is treated by draining fluids. |
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Term
| Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) |
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Definition
Impedes passage of many toxic substances from blood into the brain.
Result of a special structure of cerebral blood vessels, that are unlike other blood vessels with loosely packed cell walls.
-Very tightly packed preventing passage, especially of proteins and other large molecules.
-Doesn't block large molecules that are critical for normal brain function
How well drugs affect the brain depends on ability to pass through BBB.
Some areas of the brain are leakier. |
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Term
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Definition
Roughly 100 Billion
Cells specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals.
Humans have the most they do at six months into a pregnancy.
External Anatomy: Cell membrane, cell body, dendrites, axon hillock, axon, myelin, nodes of ranvier, buttons, synapses. |
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Term
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Definition
Semipermeable membrane that encloses the neuron.
Lipid bilayer: Channel proteins through which certain molecules can pass.
Signal proteins transfer signals to inside of neuron when particular molecules bind to them. |
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Term
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Definition
AKA Soma.
Headquarters; nucleus
Metabolic center of the neuron.
Endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm, ribosomes, golgi complex, nucleus, mitochondria
Microtubules are tubules responsible for the rapid transport of material throughout neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
Where information comes in at.
Short processes emanating from cell body, which receive most synaptic contacts from other neurons.
Receive information on the NTs |
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Term
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Definition
| Cone-shaped region at junction between the axon and cell body |
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Term
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Definition
Long, narrow process that projects from the soma.
Information leaves the neuron.
Conducting Rod
Electrical impulse |
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Term
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Definition
| Fatty insulation around axon that speeds transportation of information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Gaps between myelin sections |
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Term
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Definition
Where NTs are stored.
Buttonlike endings of axon branches, which release chemicals into synapses.
Synaptic Vesicles: spherical membrane packages that store NT molecules ready for release near synapses. |
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Term
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Definition
| Gaps between adjacent neurons across which chemical signals are transmitted. |
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Term
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Definition
Molecules released from active neurons and influence activity of other cells.
NT Molecules:
Small- synthesized in the terminal buttons and packed in synaptic vesicles
Large- assembled in the soma and packaged in vesicles, then are transported to the axon terminal |
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Term
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Definition
Most common!
More that 2 processes extending from soma |
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Term
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Definition
| One process extending from soma |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 processes extending from soma |
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Term
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Definition
With short axons or no axon at all.
Function is to intergrate the neural activity within a single brain structure. |
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Term
| Two kinds of gross neural structures |
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Definition
Those composed primarily of cell bodies and those composed primarily of axons.
Clusters of Cell Bodies:
CNS: Nuclei
PNS: Ganglia
Bundles of Axons:
CNS: Tracts
PNS: Nerves |
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Term
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Definition
Outnumber neurons 10-1.
Smaller than neurons.
Support and Repair.
Several Kinds: Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, Microglia, Astrocytes |
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Term
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Definition
(Think Spiderman)
Glial cells with extensions that wrap around the axons of some neurons of the CNS.
Don't allow for regrowth.
Produce myelin.
Rich in myelin and myelin sheaths, which increase the speed and efficiency of axonal conduction. |
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Term
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Definition
Similar function to Oligodendrocytes, but in PNS.
Only one myelin segment.
Can guide axonal regeneration after damage.
Produces myelin. |
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Term
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Definition
Smallest glia that respond to injury/disease by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris, and triggering inflammatory responses.
Do job too well: Injury too clean for repair. |
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Term
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Definition
Larges, star-shaped glial with extensions that cover blood vessel surfaces in the brain and make contact with neuron somas.
Allow passage of some chemicals from blood into CNS and blocking others.
Also can receive signals from neurons and other glial cells to control the establishment and maintenance of synapses between neurons, to modulate neural activity, and participate in glial circuits.
Clean, protect alongside BBB, nutrients. |
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Term
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Definition
Neuroanatomical Technique.
Early discovery that stains neurons completely black for individual silhouettes. |
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Term
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Definition
Neuroanatomical Technique
Penetrate all cells, binding only to structures in the neuron |
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Term
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Definition
Neuroanatomical Technique
Uses magnification and light to put electrons onto a film resulting in an electron micrograph, capturing neuronal detail exquisitly.
A scanning electron microscope provides them in 3D. |
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Term
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Definition
Anterograde (Forward): Used to trace paths of axons projecting away from soma.
Retrograde (Backwards): Used to trace paths of axon projecting into a particular area. |
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Term
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Definition
Anterior: Towards the nose end
Posterior: Toward the tail end
Dorsal: Toward the surface of the back/top of the head
Ventral: Toward surface of the chest/bottom of the head
Medial: Toward midline of the body
Lateral: Away from the midline, towards body's lateral surfaces
Primates:
Superior and inferior refer to top/bottom of head
Proximal and Distal refer to proximity to CNS. |
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Term
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Definition
Horizontal: Slice parallel to ground
Sagittal: a midsagittal section separates the left and right halves.
Frontal (Coronal): Cross-section, like slicing a load of bread |
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Term
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Definition
Gray Matter:
-H-shaped (butterfly shape)
-Dorsal Horns
-Ventral Horns
-Composed largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons.
-Pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord (one on the left, one on the right) at 31 different levels
-Each of the 62 spinal nerves divides as it nears the cord and its axons are joined to the cord via the dorsal or ventral root
-Dorsal Root Axons (Afferent)
-Sensory
-Dorsal Root Ganglia- cell bodies grouped together outside the cord
-Ventral Root (Efferent)- motor
White Matter:
Outer component
Mainly myelinated axons |
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Term
| Five Major Divisions of the Brain |
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Definition
Forebrain:
-Telencephalon
-Diencephalon
Midbrain:
-Mesencephalon
Hindbrain:
-Metencephalon
-Myelencephalon (Medulla)
*Remember Top, then alphabetically down!
Apart from telencephalon, all are parts of brain stem, excluding the cerebellum. |
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Term
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Definition
Medulla.
Composed largely of tracts (myelinated groups of axons) carrying signals between the rest of the brain and body
Reticular Formation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Helps regulate heart rate and breathing |
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Term
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Definition
"Little Net"
A complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that occupies the central core of the brain stem from the posterior boundary of the medulla to the anterior boundary of the midbrain
Sometimes called reticular activating system b/c parts seem to play a role in arousal
Variety of functions: sleep, attention, movement, maintenance of muscle tone, and various cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory reflexes. States of consciousness |
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Term
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Definition
-Pons: a bulge on the brain of many tracts and part of the reticular formation near medulla
- Sleep and arousal
-Cerebellum: "Little brain" large, convoluted structure on the brain stem's dorsal surface
-Sensorimotor and cognitive functions:
Basic coordinated motor movement, spacial memory
*One of the first areas affected by alcohol |
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Term
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Definition
Tectum (roof)- the dorsal surface of the midbrain
-Two pairs of bumps called colliculi ("little hills")
-Often referred to as the optic tectum
Tegmentum is the division of the mesencephalon ventral to the tectum
In addition to reticular formation and tracts, contains three 'colorful' structures: Periaqueductal gray, substansia nigra, and red nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
Posterior
Auditory Function |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Situated around cerebral aqueduct
Mediating the analgesic (pain-reducing) effects of opiatic drugs |
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Term
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Definition
Location of dopamine producing neurons that lead to basal ganglia
Part of sensorimotor system
Important in Parkinson's Disease |
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Term
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Definition
Part of sensorimotor system
Motor movement |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Thalamus and Hypothalamus |
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Term
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Definition
Sensory relay nuclei
Sensory information goes here to be organized before proceeding to the cortex
White lamina (layers) on surface because of myelinated axons
Two lobes connected by massa intermedia |
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Term
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Definition
Right below thalamus.
Mammillary bodies
Regulation of motivated behaviors
Controls hormone release by the pituitary gland
Homeostasis: Balance, constant internal state, like body temperature
Optic Chiasm: Point at which optic nerves from each eye come together, X-shape is created b/c some axons decussate (cross-over to the other side of the brain) They're contralateral. Non-decussating are ipsilateral. |
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Term
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Definition
Largest Division of the human brain
Mediates most complex functions
Cerebral Cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia |
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Term
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Definition
Hemispheres
Four lobes
Deeply convoluted to increase amount of cerebral cortex without increasing volume of the brain
Large furrows are called fissures (deep sulcus)
Small furrows called sulci (valley-sunk)
Ridges between fissures and sulci called gyri (ridge/hill)
Cerebral hemispehres almost completely separated by the largest fissure, the longitudinal fissure, which divides the hemispheres, but the hemispheres are directly connected by the cerebral commisures, such as the corpus callosum
Central and lateral fissures partially divide each hemisphere into four lobes
Central Sulcus (like headband)
Precentral gyrus,postcentral gyrus, and superior temproal gyri are among the largest gyri |
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Term
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Definition
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, and Temporal
Lobes don't have single functions |
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Term
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Definition
| Largest Hemisphere-connecting tract of axons |
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Term
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Definition
Language and logic
Explanations
Analytical |
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Term
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Definition
Visual and spacial tasks
Music, recognition of faces, expressing emotion, art |
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Term
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Definition
"Sea horse"
Necessary for formation of new memories
Three major layers
Part of limbic system |
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Term
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Definition
Involved in movement
Striatum (Caudate and putamen) and globus pallidees
Striatum involved with Parkinson's Disease |
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Term
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Definition
Cerebral Cortext
Limbic System |
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Term
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Definition
"Ring"
Circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus
Regulations of basic motivated behaviors
Four "F"'s:
Feeding, fleeing, fighting, fucking
Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus, and olfactory bulbs |
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Term
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Definition
"Almond"
Raw animal-like emotions
Anger, fear |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Sensory cortex
Receives afferent information |
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Term
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Definition
In back
Main function is the analysis of visual input |
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Term
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Definition
Top of the back of the head
Fine motor movements
Postcentral gyrus analyzes sensations
Remaining areas perceive location of both objects and our own bodies in directing our attention |
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Term
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Definition
Above ears, temples
Cortex has three general functions:
Superior temporal gyrus involved in hearing and language
Left temporal lobe most important
Inferior temporal cortex identifies complex visual patterns
Medial portion is important for certain kinds of memory |
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Term
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Definition
Precentral gyrus and adjacent frontal cortex have motor functions
Frontal cortex anterior to motor cortex performs complex cognitive functions
- Critical thinking, planning, reasoning, logic, impulse control, decision making, personality, emotional intelligence
Prefrontal cortex- last to fully develop (fully myelinate) |
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Term
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Definition
90% of the cerebral cortex.
Six-layered cortex of relatively recent evolution
3 important characteristics:
-2 fundamentally different types of cortical neurons
-Pyramidal cells: large multipolar neurons with pyramid-shaped somas, a large dendrite called an apical dendrite, and a very long axon
-Stellate cells: small, star-shaped interneurons
-Organized in six layers differ in size and density of their soma and relative proportion of pyramidal and stellate cells they contain.
-Many long axons and dendrites course vertically through neocortix. Basis for columnar organization: Neurons often form a mini-circuit that performs a single function
-Variations in thickness |
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Term
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Definition
| The branch of psychology that studies the biological and physiological basis of behavior |
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Term
| Origin of Physiological Psychology |
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Definition
| Hebb (1949) proposed that psychological phenomena might be produced by brain activity |
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Term
| Research in Physiological Psychology |
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Definition
Involves nonhuman subjects
-98% of animals used are rats or mice
-Simpler brains, easier to study
-More likely that brain behavior interactions will be revealed
-Gain insight by making comparisons with other species
-Few ethical restrictions, though highly regulated
-Cortex changes |
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Term
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Definition
| Involve manipulation of variables |
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Term
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Definition
Reasearcher doesn't control the variables of interest
Quasiexperimental Studies, Case studies |
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Term
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Definition
Focuses on a single individual
Usually more in-depth than other approaches, but may not be generalized |
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Term
| Quasiexperimental Studies |
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Definition
| Studies of groups of subjects exposed to conditions in the real world |
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Term
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Definition
Measure what they can observe and use this to infer what they cannot observe
Use statistics |
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Term
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Definition
AKA Basic Research
Conducted for purpose of acquiring knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
| Intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind |
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Term
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Definition
Behaviorism (John Watson) vs. Ethology (instincts)
New understanding- "Nurture" includes much more learning |
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Term
| A Model of the Biology of Behavior |
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Definition
All behavior is the product of the interaction of three factors:
Genes-> Experience-> Perception of the current situation |
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Term
| Darwin and Natural Selection |
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Definition
| Just as physical features can contribute to "fitness," so do behaviors, like aggression, mating behaviors, and prosocial behaviors |
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Term
| Evolution of the Human Brain |
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Definition
Brain size is generally correlated with body size and not intelligence
More informative to look at relative size of different brain regions |
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Term
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Definition
Charge is -70mV
-Ions inside soma are more negative than the ions in fluid outside
Anions (A-) and Potassium (K+) inside
- Anions, negatively charged proteins, are too
large to exit neuron
Sodium (Na+) and Choride (Cl-) outside
Two passive forces (no nrg needed) of equillibrium working on ions:
-Electrostatic forces: opposite charges attracted to balance out
-Concentration Gradient: Diffuse
Na+ is driven by both forces
Anions driven out by both, but cannot leave
Cl- driven in out by EF, but in by CG, but doesn't leave when channels do open
K+ driven in by EF, but out by CG, which is the stronger force
Active Force, that requires energy (ATP):
Na-K Pump: Spans membrane of cell
Pumps in three sodium ions out for 2 potassium ions into the neuron
Helps to get neuron back to resting state after action potential |
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Term
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Definition
-65mV
Opens channels, letting sodium rush in, making neuron positive, releasing NTs from terminal buttons.
NTs carried in vesicles; signals tell vesicles to drop what they're carrying; dendrites move over and get the NTs; Some NTs are reused through reuptake |
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Term
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Definition
Threshold must be reached for AP to fire
An "all or nothing" event, like gun fire
Intergration of IPSPs and EPSPs must result in a potential of about -65mV
At threshold, the neuron "fires" and the action potential occurs
Voltage-activated Na+ channels open and sodium rushes in
Membrane potential move from -70mV to +50mV
K is being driven out by both EF and CG
-Hyperpolarization prevents retrograde of signal
and not overfiring |
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Term
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Definition
Temporal Summation: Intergration of events happening at different times
Spatial: Intergration of events happening at different places |
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Term
| Generation and Conduction of Postsynaptic Potentials (PSPs) |
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Definition
NTs bind at postsynaptic receptors
These chemical messengers bind and cause electrical changes
Depolarization: (Making the membrane potential less negative) = Excitatory (EPSPs)
Hyperpolarizations: (Making the membrane potential more negative) =Inhibitory (IPSPs)
Inhibitory makes it less likely to fire an AP |
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Term
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Definition
Absolute: Impossible to initiate another AP
Relative: Harder to initiate another AP |
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Term
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Definition
Once voltage-activated channels open
Rising Phase: Na+ moves membrane potential from -70mV to +50mV
End of Rising Phase: After about one millisecond, Na+ channels close
Change in membrane potential opens voltage-activated K+ channels
Repolarization: Concentration gradient and change in charge leads to efflux of K+
Hyperpolarization: Channels close slowly, K+ efflux leads to membrane potential of -70mV |
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Term
| Conduction in Myelinated Axons |
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Definition
Passive movement of AP within myelinated portions occurs instantly
Nodes of Ranvier (unmyelinated) is where the full AP happens
-Where ion channels are found
- Where full AP is seen
-AP appears to jump from node to node
-Saltatory Conduction |
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Term
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Definition
Most common:
-Axodendritic: Axons on dendrites
-Axosomatic: Axons on cell bodies |
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Term
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Definition
Process of NT release
AP at the terminal opens voltage-activated Ca^2+ channels
NT becomes a ligand of its receptor, so basically an activating key |
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Term
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Definition
Proteins that bind particular NTs
-Ionotrophic Receptors: Associated with ligand-activated channels (When NT binds, channels open)
-Metabotrophic Receptors: Associated with signal proteins and G proteins (requires energy)
-NT (1st messenger) binds-> G protein subunit breaks away-> ion channel opened/closed OR a 2nd messenger is synthesized
-Can alter phenotype of gene=plasticity of brain |
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Term
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Definition
Reuptake: Take up and recycle NT (Most common)
Enzymatic Degradation- A NT is broken down by enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
Small Molecule NTs
Building blocks of proteins
-GABA: most prevalent inhibitory transmitter; slows us down
-Glutamate |
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Term
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Definition
Small-molecule NT
Synthesized from a single amino acid
-Catecholamines: (All start with Tyracine)
-Dopamine: important for movement and is also
known to be a major NT associated with reward
-Norepinephrine
-Epinephrine: associated at high levels with high
heart rate and high blood pressure
-Indolamines:
-Serotonin: Starts with Tryptophan; mood
regulation; depression; important for sleeping
and eating; perceptions |
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Term
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Definition
Small-molecule NT
Important for stimulating muscles
Important NT in parasympathetic nervous system
Allows us to move muscles
Important for memory (Most studied for Alzhiemer) |
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Term
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Definition
Small-molecule NT
Not packaged in vesicles
Soluble Gases:
Nitric oxide: break all NT rules, diffuse across cell membranes, carried in retrograde, manufactured quickly in soma, partake in firing of neurons
Endocannabinoids: bind to receptors; associated with eating |
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Term
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Definition
Neuropeptides: Larger strands of amino acids
Endorphines: "Endogenous opiates"
Natural pain relieving NTs
-Runner's high
Neuropeptide Y: released in hypothalamus, causes opposite of hunger, which is satiety |
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Term
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Definition
Drugs that increase NT activity; prevent reuptake; mimic NT, by binding to receptor site; increase synthesis, increasing rate of release
Cocaine- catecholamine agonist (mainly dopamine) that blocks reuptake
Bensodiazephines- GABA agonists that attract GABA to receptors, facillitating; anti-anxiety
SSRI's: Slective Serotonin reuptake Inhibitors; Serotonin agonist that prevent reuptake, so serotonin is floating around more
i.e. Prozac, Zoloft, Lexapro |
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Term
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Definition
Decrease activity of NT by blocking receptors and slowing down synthesis
Atropine: Ach antagonists, block receptors
Antipsychotic Medications: Block dopamine receptors |
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