Hyperthyroidism

Symptoms - frigety, anxiety, unable to sleep for a few weeks, heart palpitations, weightloss and being hot

Secundary memory

Least likely to drecrease with age. Creativity seems to continue to do well as well

In Alzheimer

Impair is progressive and uniform

Smilling by infants

Relates to REM sleep. Child smile while asleep then after 2 weeks starts smiling while awake

Dementia from alcohol

Affects visospatial abilities by decreasing visospatial performance skills

Sensory Memory

Is capable of storing a very large amount of information for a very brief period of time. Collects information from all sences for a brief time

As one gets oldrer?

REM sleep compare to Non-REM sleep decrease.

Age up

Sleep Down

Frontal Lobe

Processes language and expressive speech

Parietal Lobe

Causes problems in sensation. It holds somatosensory cortex> light, touch, pain, temperature

Temporal Lobe

Receptive Speech

Cerebellum

Balance

Occipital Lobe

Vision Primary

Visual Cortex

Hypothalamus

Releases gonadotrophin in females

Noticeble Differences (JNDs) 

To measure noticeble diferences in changes in intensity of light (physical) and perception (physiological) the measure used has to have equal intervals

Psychogenic Amnesia

Inability to remember own name and recollect auto-biographical information

Biofeedback and relaxation training

Both trainings are equally effective for migrane

Frontal Lobe

Damages in frontal lobe causes desinhibition, apathy and executive deficits  

Migraine

A commun migraine may be exacerbated by bending over or lifting

Has No Aura

Vascular Dementia

Risk factors hypertension, diabetes mellitus and smoking

Iconic Memory

Is memory for icons (visual images) it is an aspect of sensory memory. Example flash icons for 50 seconds then ask person to remember icon

MAO -Inhibitors

When taking this meds clients cannot have yogurt, ripe avocados, soy sauce or ripe cheese

Cottage and cream cheese is ok

Hypothalamus

Physical homeostasis, temperature, hunger, thirst, sex, agression and sleeop

Unilateral ECT

Produces less anterogade and retrograde amnesia compare to bilateral ECT

Left Hemisphere

Primary controls

* Ability to generate precise and correct words

* Ability to analize the relevance of data

* Ability to perform mathematical operations

Enuresis

Usually cease symptoms in adulthood

Huntington's Disease

Cognitive and psychiatric (mood) symptoms open before motor (movement) symptoms

In this order

* Cognitive

* Psychiatric -Mood

* Motor- Movement

Color Blind

The gene of color blind is in the x cromosome and is transfer by the mother

Frontal Lobe Functions

• Judgement
• Emotional response
• Expressive language
• Meaning
• Planing
• Personality
• Reasoning
• Speech area

Parietal Lobe Functions

• Visual attention
• Touch perception
• Objects
• Integration of senses
• Movement

Temporal Lobe Functions

• Hearing
• Memory
• Visual perception
• Catergorization
• See objects

Occipital Lobe Functions

• Vision
• Visual processing

Cerebellum Functions

• Voluntary movement
• Balance
• Reflex

Brain Srem Function

• Heart Rate
• Sweating
• Blood pressure
• Digestion

Left Brain Function

• Writting language                  * Logic
• Number skills                        * Reason
• Reasoning                            * Objective
• Spoken language/speech        * Verbal
• Scientific skills                      * Self oriented
• Right hand control                 * Categorical
• Main language center        * Detail focuse                                                    
• * Mimicry                                     
• * Purposefulness

Right Brain Functions

• Insight                            * Intuition
• 3-D forms                        * Emotions  
• Arty awareness                * Subjective
• Imagination                     * Visual
• Music awareness              * Group oriented
• Left hand control              * Relational
• Spatial abilities                * Whole Picture
• Simple language               * Creativity
• Comprehension                 * Playfulness
• Non-verbal ideation

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Is involved in the regulation of:

• the parasympathetic nervous system,
• voluntary movement, and
• memory - memory, declines associated with both normal aging and Alzheimer's disease are believed to be related to deterioration of neurons that secrete ACh, especially in the hippocampus.

Dopamine

is involved in voluntary movement, and a deterioration of neurons that secrete dopamine contributes to movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's chorea. It has also been linked to Tourette's Disorder, with evidence for this association being provided by the effectiveness of dopamine-blocking drugs - such as haloperidol and pimozine - for reducing its symptoms. Abnormalities in dopamine are also involved in several mental disorders including mania, depression, and schizophrenia.

Serotonin

mediates a number of functions including body temperature, hunger and thirst, sexual behavior, aggression, arousal, and sleep. In terms of disorders, it plays an important role in depression, mania, schizophrenia, OCD, eating disorders, and migraine headaches.

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter

is involved in falling asleep and anxiety (the barbiturates exert their effects by increasing the activity of GABA). Degeneration of GABA-secreting cells in the substantia nigra, basal ganglia, and cortex has been linked to Huntington's chorea.

Hindbrain:

The reticular activating system (RAS) is vital to consciousness and arousal. It screens sensory input, especially during sleep, and arouses higher centers of the brain when important information must be processed.

Forebrain - Subcortical Structures:

Forebrain - Subcortical Structures:

• with memory consolidation (the transfer of information from short- to long-term memory).
• most directly involved in mediating spatial memory (the location of objects) and
• explicit memory (memory requiring conscious recollection).
• In Alzheimer's disease, degeneration of neurons is greatest in the hippocampus, amygdala, and entorhinal cortex, which collectively make up the medial temporal lobe

Forebrain - the Cortex:

The consequences of damage to the frontal lobe depend on its location but may include impaired motor control, deficits in higher-order cognitive functions, changes in personality and emotion, and Broca's aphasia, which is characterized by deficits in the production of written and spoken language while comprehension remains intact.

Forebrain - the Cortex:

Damage to the parietal lobe can produce a number of unusual symptoms including impaired visual-spatial ability, contralateral neglect, apraxia, tactile agnosia, and Gerstmann's syndrome.

Forebrain - the Cortex:

Damage►disturbances in auditory sensation and perception (for example, auditory agnosia), memory loss, and Wernicke's aphasia. Memory loss is both anterograde and retrograde but is limited to declarative memories - that is, memories for facts and experiences that must be consciously recollected. Wernicke's aphasia involves deficits in both comprehending and producing speech. The speech of people with this disorder sounds fluent but is devoid of meaning ("word salad") and often contains paraphasias, which are word substitutions that can be actual words or made-up words. (Note that conduction aphasia is caused by damage to the fibers that connect Wernicke's area to Broca's area. It causes fluent, meaningless speech but does not affect comprehension. It also shares several characteristics with both Wernicke's and Broca's aphasia - i.e., all three involve an inability to repeat words spoken by someone else and problems in naming objects.)

Forebrain - the Cortex:

Damage ►in visual cortex can cause deficits in visual sensation, perception, and memory (for example, visual agnosia, loss of depth perception, persistent after images) and, when damage is extensive and bilateral, cortical blindness. Prosopagnosia is a type of visual agnosia involving an inability to recognize familiar faces. It is caused by bilateral or right hemisphere damage to the occipitotemporal area (although there is evidence that some forms of prosopagnosia may also involve damage to certain areas in the right parietal lobe).

Hemispheric Specialization:

For example, if an image is presented to the left visual field of a split-brain patient, the image travels via the optic nerve to the right side of the brain, and the person is able to pick out the object by touch with his left hand. However, because the corpus callosum is cut, information about the object is not shared with the left (language) hemisphere, so the person cannot name the object or identify it by touch with his right hand.

Emotion and Stress:

It proposes that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions - especially autonomic nervous system reactions - to stimuli (e.g., "I must be afraid because my heart is pounding and my knees are shaking").

Emotion and Stress:

(1) Alarm- refers to the "fight or flight" reaction, which is mediated by hypothalamic stimulation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.

(2) followed by resistance, in which hypothalamic stimulation of the endocrine glands results in the release of cortisol and other "stress hormones." This allows the body to continue fighting a stressor after the effects of the alarm stage dissipate.

(3) Finally, if the stress becomes chronic so that the body cannot return to a normal state, exhaustion occurs. As the result of excessive secretion of the cortisol and other factors, the individual may develop a psychosomatic disorder and/or suffer permanent damage to the brain and immune system

Emotion and Stress:

Early research on Type A behavior linked it to an increased risk for coronary heart disease. However, subsequent studies revealed that the "toxic" element of Type A behavior is negative emotions - especially excessive anger and hostility. The other characteristics of Type A behavior (sense of time urgency, impatience, competitiveness) are much less predictive of heart problems.

Neurological, Psychophysiological, and Endocrine Disorders:

• Affective symptoms - commonly irritability, depression, and apathy - usually appear first, sometimes leading to a misdiagnosis.
• Cognitive deterioration begins with forgetfulness and eventually ends up as dementia.
• Early motor symptoms include fidgeting and clumsiness. Later, athetosis (slow, writhing movements) and chorea (involuntary rapid, jerky movements) develop. 

Neurological, Psychophysiological, and Endocrine Disorders:

Hypersecretion of hormones by the thyroid gland produces hyperthyroidism (Grave's Disease), characterized by a speeded-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, heat intolerance, increased appetite with weight loss, tachycardia and palpitations, nervousness, agitation, mania, fatigue, and insomnia.

hyposecretion produces hypothyroidism, which involves a slowed metabolism, reduced appetite with weight gain, bradycardia, lowered body temperature, depression and apathy, decreased libido, and impaired concentration and memory.

Psychopharmacology: Antipsychotic

Anticholinergic symptoms, extrapyramidal symptoms (parkinsonism, akathisia, and tardive dyskinesia), and neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). NMS is a rare side effect→muscle rigidity, tachycardia, fever, an altered state of consciousness, and autonomic nervous system dysfunction. Tardive dyskinesia →uncontrollable movements of the lips, mouth, tongue, torso, and limbs →irreversible, in some cases, its symptoms can be alleviated by slowly withdrawing the drug.

↓drug ↑symptoms, decline over time. clozapine drug ►does not cause tardive dyskinesia. In about 1% of cases, it causes agranulocytosis, a potentially fatal blood disease

Tricyclics ►for "typical" depressions. 

Side effects →anticholinergic symptoms, confusion and memory problems, and impaired sexual functioning. cardiotoxic and can be fatal in overdose.

SSRIs ►advantages→ less cardiotoxic, safer in overdose, less likely to cause cognitive impairment, and have a more rapid onset. side effecys →nausea, appetite loss, constipation, insoni, anxiety, anorexia, irination and sex disfuncytion

MAOIS ► for typical depression. Side effects → Anticholinergic - insomnia, agitation, confusion, rash, weight gain, edema, headache, dizziness, tremor, blood dyscrasia and hipertensive crisis  

Psychopharmacology:Anxiolytics (minor tranquilizers)

Side effects ►confusion and disorientation, ataxia, paradoxical agitation, and, when the drug is stopped, rebound excitation. Benzodiazepines are addictive with chronic use and have a superadditive (synergistic) effect when taken with other CNS depressants, which can be fatal.

Development of the Central Nervous System

Neurons are initially over-produced, and many undergo an active pruning process during prenatal development and for several years following birth. This form of cell death is referred to as apoptosis and apparently serves to "fine-tune" brain development.

Proliferation: New cells are produced inside the neural tube beginning when the embryo is about 2-1/2 weeks old.
Migration: Immature neurons migrate to their final destination in the brain beginning at about 8 weeks. Once these cells reach their destination, they begin to aggregate with other cells to form the structures of the brain.
Differentiation: Neurons initially look very much like other cells of the body but, following migration, develop axons and dendrites.
Myelination: The axons of some neurons myelinate, which occurs when glial cells form an insulating sheath around the cell’s axon. Much myelination occurs postnatally.
Synaptogenesis: The timing of synaptogenesis (formation of synapses) depends on the specific area of the brain, but most occurs postnatally. Synaptogenesis appears to be influenced by both endogenous (e.g., genetic) and exogenous (e.g., experience) factors