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Definition
| A substructure of the limbic system and is involved in the control of emotional activities, including the mediation of defensive-aggressive behaviors and attachment of emotions to memories. |
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| Most often caused by brain trauma that affects the right parietal lobe and involves a lack of awareness of one's symptoms on the left side of the body. |
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| Anticholinergic Side Effects |
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Definition
| Caused by several drugs including the antipsychotics and tricyclic antidepressants. They include dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), urinary retention, constipation, memory impairment, and confusion. |
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Definition
| Impairments in the production and/or comprehension of language. |
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Definition
| Involves difficulty in producing written or spoken language with little or no trouble in understanding language. |
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| Characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language along with the production of rapid, seemingly effortless speech that is lacking in content and may include anomia and paraphasia. |
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Definition
| Produced by damage to the arcuate fasciculus. It does not significantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia and an inability to repeat words or simple phrases. |
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| The inability to perform voluntary movements, especially those involving a sequence of movements. It is often the result of parietal lobe damage. |
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| A lack of coordination while performing voluntary movements. It often involves clumsiness and loss of balance. Ataxia is usually due to damage to the cerebellum (eg. as the result of alcohol consumption). |
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Definition
| The newer antipsychotic drugs (eg. clozapine) affect receptors for several neurotransmitters including dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate. These drugs are effective for both positive and negative symptoms of Schizophrenia and are less likely to produce tardive dyskinesia than the traditional antipsychotics. |
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| A dividion of the peripheral nervous system and is involved in the control of visceral functions (eg. heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating). It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. |
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| Involved in teh mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions. Activiation of the sympathetic branch produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes. |
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| Part of the ANS. Involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation; activation is associated with slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat gland output, and increased activity of the digestive system. |
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Definition
| Subcortical structures (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra) that are involved in planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movements. Damage to this area is associated with Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease. |
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Definition
| These (eg. propranolol) block or diminish the cardiovascular excitatory response to the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. They are used to treat cardiovascular disorders, glaucoma, and migraine headache and are also useful for reducing the physical symptoms of anxiety. |
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Definition
| According to the catecholamine hypothesis, depression is caused by lower-than-normal levels of norepinephrine. |
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Definition
| A large structure on the dorsal aspect of the hindbrain. It is involved in teh extrapyramidal control of motor activities (eg. coordination, balance, posture); damage can result in ataxia. |
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| Refers to brain damage that occurs when a blood clot or other obstruction or hemorrhage disrupts the flow of blood to the brain. Common symptoms include contralateral hemiplegia, hemianesthesia involving the face, arm, and leg, and contralateral visual field loss. |
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Definition
| The four cavities of the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid. Blockage of these and a resulting build-up of fluid can cause hydrocephalus. |
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| Involves cerebral trauma caused by a blow to the head. It is often followed by a period of loss of consciousness (coma) followed by posttraumatic (anterograde) amnesia. It may also involve retrograde amnesia and other symptoms, depending on the nature and severity of the injury. |
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| Contralateral Representation |
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Definition
| For most sensory and motor functions, the cortex exhibits contralateral representation. The right and left hemispheres are connected by several bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum. If the corpus callosum is severed, the two hemispheres operate essentially as separate, independent brains. |
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Definition
| According to this, Schizophrenia is due to overactivity or oversensitivity at domapine receptors. |
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| Emotion (Areas of the brain) |
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Definition
| The amygdala (plays a role in the perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and other emotionsand attaches emotion to memories); the hypothalamus (which is involved in the translation of emotions into physical responses); and the cerebral cortex. With regard to the latter, the left hemisphere governs happiness and other positive emotions, while the right hemisphere mediates sadness, fear, and other negative emotions. |
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Definition
| Contains the primary motor, premotor, and prefrontal areas. It is involved in initiative, planning ability, abstract thinking, and other executive functions; personality and mood; and motor functions. Damage to the prefrontal cortex produces personality changes and deficits in higher-level cognitive abilities. |
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Definition
| There are mechanisms in the spinal cord that mediate (block) the perception of pain. |
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| General Adaptation Syndrome |
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Definition
| According to Selye, the human response to stress is mediated by adrenal-pituitary secretions (eg. cortisol) and involves three stages: alarm, reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. The model predicts that prolonged stress can result in illness or death. |
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| Hemispheric Specialization |
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Definition
| Although the left and right hemispheres are both involved to some degree in most functions, they tend to specialize. The specialization of the two hemispheres was initially studied in split-brain patients, whose corpus callosums had been severed to control severe epilepsy. |
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| Dominant. Dominates in verbal activities (spontaneous speaking and writing, word recognition, memory for words and numbers); analytical, logical thought,; and positive emotional states. |
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Definition
| Non-dominant. Dominates in visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation and memory for shapes and in negative emotions. |
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Definition
| A limbic system structure that is important for spatial and explicit memory and the consolidation of declarative memories. |
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Definition
| An inherited degenerative disesae that is transmitted by a single dominant gene and involves emotional, cognitive, and motor symptoms. Early symptoms are often depression, apathy, anxiety, antisocial tendencies, forgetfulness, fidgeting, and clumsiness. Later, athetosis and choreaand more severe cognitive symptoms develop. It is believed to be due to a loss of GABA-secreting neurons and glutamate excitotoxicity in th basal ganglia, especially in the ceaudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus. |
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Definition
| 2 types. Primary (essential) is diagnosed when high blood pressure is not due to a known physiological cause. This accounts for about 85 to 90% of all cases of high blood pressure; untreated, it can lead to cardiovascular disease, and it is major cause of heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke. Secondary is diagnosed when elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease. |
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Definition
| Caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a speeded-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, exophthalmos, nervousness, and insomnia. |
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Definition
| Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and involves a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression. |
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| Consists of a cluster of nuclei, which control the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands, mediates basic drives, and regulate emotional expression. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is located in the hypothalamus, is involved in regulation of the body's circadian rhythms. |
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| Learning and Memory (areas of the brain) |
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Definition
| 1) Temporal Lobes-essential for the encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories. 2) Hippocampus-responsible for the consolidation of long-term declarative memories (transferring info from short term to long term memory). 3) Amygdala-plays a key role in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories. 4) Prefrontal cortex- has been implicated in short term memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory. 5) Thalamus - involved in processing information and transferring it to the neocortex. |
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| Learning and Memory (neural mechanisms) |
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Definition
| 1) Long-term potentiation (a physiological process involving the modification of nerve synapses, especially at glutamate receptors in the hippocampus:; and 2) protein synthesis (inhibition of the synthesis of protein or RNA at the time of learning prevents the formation of long-term memories). |
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Definition
| Antidepressants that work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is involved in deactivating dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Teh most dangerous side effect if hypertensive crisis, which can occur when an MAOI is taken in conjunction with barbiturates, amphetamines, antihistamines, or certain other drugs, or with foods containing the amino acid tyramine (eg. aged cheeses and meats, beer, red wine, chicken liver, avocados, bananas, fava beans) |
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Definition
| (Ritalin) A psychostimulant drug used to treat ADHD. Its side effects include dysphoria, decreased appetite, insomnia, and growth suppression. |
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Definition
| A recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head. Triggers include certain foods, alcohol, bright lights, and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. A migraine may be preceded by an aura (classic migraine) or gastrointestinal or other symptoms (common migraine). |
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Definition
| Used to alleviate mania and mood swings in Bipolar Disorder and include lithium and anti-convulsants (eg. carbamazepine). |
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Definition
| (opiods) Have both sedative and analgesic properties. Medically, the narcotic-analgesics are used for the same reasons they were used centuries ago-ie, as analgesics, treatments for diarrhea, and cough suppressants. Chronic use of a narcotic-analgesic results in tolerance and psychological and physical dependence. |
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Definition
| Make it possible to study both the structure and function of the living brain. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are structural techniques. Positron-emission tomography (PET), single proton emission computed tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provide information on the functional activities of the brain. |
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Term
| Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) |
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Definition
| A rare but potentially fatal side effect of the antipsychotic drugs. It involves a rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms including muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness. To avoid a potentially fatal outcome, the drug must be stopped as soon as symptoms of NMS develop. |
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Definition
| Chemical substances that are released from axon terminals, diffuse across synapses, and excite or inhibits receptor sites on postsynaptic nerve cells. Include: Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, and GABA. |
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Definition
| Mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal, and memory (eg. memory loss in Alzheimers). |
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Definition
| Medicates the activities of the sympathetic nervous system and plays a role in the regulation of eating, sleep, and positive reinforcement. A deficiency is associated with some forms of depression. |
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Definition
| Involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Insufficient dopamine in the basal ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson's disease; excessive activity at dopamine receptors has been linked to Schizophrenia and Tourette's syndrome. |
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Definition
| Ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in the regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain and in the Affective Disorders, Schizophrenia, and OCD. |
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Definition
| The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep, and seizures. Low levels of GABA in the motor region are associated with Huntington's disease. |
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Definition
| Contains the primary sensory cortex for vision. Damage can result in visual object agnosia, color agnosia, word blindness, and/or scotomas (blind spots). |
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Definition
| Contains the somatosensory cortex. Damage can cause apraxia, inability to recognize objects by touch, problems related to left-right orientation, contralateral neglect, and/or Gerstmann Syndrome. |
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Definition
| A progressive degenerative disease characterized by tremor, muscular rigidity, akathisia, akinesia, and speech difficulties; it may eventually include dementia. Symptoms are temporarily relieved by L-dopa, a dopamine agonist. This disease is believed to be due to degeneration of dopamine-containing cells, especially in the substantia nigra. |
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Definition
| The inability to recognize familiar faces including one's own face in the mirror. |
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Definition
| Attempt to predict the relationship between perception and sensation. Fechner's law states that physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations. Steven's power law proposes that the magnitude of a sensation is equal to the physical magnitude of the stimulus producing the sensation raised to a certain power (exponent) which varies, depending on the specific sensation being measured. Weber's law states that the just noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is a constant proportion of the initial stimulus intensity. |
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| Reticular Activating System (RAS) |
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Definition
| A network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness. |
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| Secondary Sex Characteristics |
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Definition
| At puberty, an increase in gonadal hormones influences the emergence of secondary sex characteristics and the development of the reporductive system. Although the mechanisms that trigger the development of the secondary sex characteristics are not well understood, it occurs when the hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland, which then releases the gonadotropic hormones that stimulate testosterone and sperm production by the testes or ovulation and estrogen production by the ovaries. This system is referred to as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. |
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Definition
| Include the barbiturates, anxiolytics, and alcohol. These drugs are generalized CNS depressants, and their effects, for the most part, are dose dependent: At low doses, these drugs reduce arousal and motor activity; at moderate doses, they induce sedation and sleep; and at high doses, they can produce anesthesia, coma, and death. The benzodiazepines are a type of anxiolytic. Their side effects include drowsiness, ataxia, slurred speech, and other signs of CNS depression; abrupt cessation can cause rebound hyperexcitability. |
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Definition
| Two main types: 1) Generalized are bilaterally symmetrical and do not have a focal onset. Included in this category are tonic-clonic and absence seizures. Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures include a tonic stage in which the muscles contract and the body stiffens; a clonic stage that involves rhythmic shaking of the limbs; and postictal (postseizure) depression or confusion with amnesia for the ictal event. Absence (petit mal) seizures are brief attacks involving a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms. 2) Partial seizures begin in one side of the brain and affect one side of the body, at least initially (they sometimes spread and become generalized seizures). |
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Definition
| The pituitary gland and the gonads (ovaries and testes) are teh primary sources of the sex hormones: The pituitary gland produces the gonadotropic hormones; the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone, and the testes secrete two types of androgens, testosterone and androstenedione. |
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Definition
| Refers to sex-related differences in physical appearance; and the research has confirmed that the human brain is sexually dimorphic. Studies using structural brain imaging techniques, for instance, have found sex-related differences in the size of specific regions of the brain including the corpus callosum, hippocampus, and SCN. |
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Definition
| Divided into 5 stages on the basis of EEG (electroencephalogram) pattern. Stage 1-EEG record is similar to that of an awake, relaxed individual and is dominated by alpha waves. Stage 2-EEG consists primarily of theta waves that are interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles and K complexes. Large, slow delta waves appear during stage 3; Stage 4-The deep sleep stage. Delta waves dominate. Stage 5-Characterized by the presence of rapid eye movements and is known as REM (dream) sleep. Sleep aptterns vary with age. Total sleep time, stage 4 sleep, and REM sleep all decrease from childhood to adulthood. |
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Definition
| Consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body's sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. This governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary. |
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| Carries info between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of the body, and controls simple reflexes that do not involve the brain. It consists of 31 segments, which are divided into 5 groups. From the top of the spinal cord to the bottom, these are: cervical, thoracis, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal. Damage at the cervical level ordinarily results in quadriplegia (loss of sensory and voluntary motor functioning in teh arms and legs), while damage at the thoracic level causes paraplegia (loss of functioning in the legs). |
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| (eg. fluoxetine) Antidepressant drugs that exert their effects by blocking the reuptake of serotonin at nerve synapses. Side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances, sexual dysfunction, insomnia, anxiety, headache, and anorexia. |
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Definition
| (joining senses) A rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality triggers a sensation in another sensory modality. For example, a person with synesthesia might hear a color or taste a shape. |
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Definition
| A potentially irreversible extrapyramidal side effect associated with long-term use of traditional antipsychotic drugs. Symptoms include rhythmical, stereotyped movements of the muscles of the face, limbs, and trunk (similar to Huntington's chorea). In some cases, symptoms are alleviated by a GABA agonist or by cessation of the drug. |
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Definition
| Contains the primary auditory cortex. Damage can result in auditory agnosia, Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia, cortical deafness, and/or impairments in long-term memory. |
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Definition
| A relay station for all of the senses except olfaction. It is also involved in language and memory. |
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| 2 theories. Trichromatic theory-there are 3 types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color (red, blue, or green). All other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these 3 receptors. 2)Opponent-process theory- postulates 3 distinct receptors: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black. According to this theory, some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green, and so on; and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells produces the various colors that we perceive. |
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Definition
| The theories differ in terms of their emphasis on the role of peripheral and central factors. The James-Lange theory stresses the importance of peripheral factors and proposes tha temotins represent perceptions of bodily reactions (especially ANS reactions) to sensory stimuli. Cannon-Bard theory places greater emphasis on the brain mechanisms that mediate emotin. It proposes that emotinal and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously as a result of thalamic stimulation of the cortex and the peripheral nervous system. |
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| Traditional Antipsychotics |
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Definition
| (eg. phenothiazines) Used for the mangement of Schizophrenia and other psychoses. They are most effective for positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, agitation, thought disorders). Side effects include anitcholinergic and extrapyramidal effects. |
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| Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs) |
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Definition
| (eg. imipramine, chlomipramine) Believed to work by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and/or serotonin. They are most effective for alleviating somatic, vegetative symptoms. Side effects include anticholinergic effects, confusion, drowsiness, weight gain, and cardiovascular symptoms. |
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Definition
| Highly competitive and achievement-oriented, have a sense of time urgency, and tend to be hostile, easily irritated, and impatient. A number of studies have confirmed that, cynical or antagonistic hostility is most strongly associated with health problems, especially coronary heart disease in males. |
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| (Visual not knowing). An inability to recognize familiar objects by sight. |
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