Term
| percentage of muslims illiterate |
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Definition
| 80% (or 70-75% can't read or write. neither did prophet muhammad- angel gabriel revealed the book to him |
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Term
| "Age of Ignorance" / Jahiliya |
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Definition
300-600 A.D., means pre-Islamic period at this time.
issues: ME/Near East not so primitive/backwards to refer to it as the "age of ignorance" |
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Term
| Enlightenment of Pre-Islamic times |
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Definition
| started when Muhammad was born in 570 AD, or 610 AD when first revelation was revealed to the Prophet and subsequent rise of Islam |
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Term
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Definition
| Muslims can't decide. Either 1st revelation, which was revealed to Muhammad in 610 AD, but many Muslims believe that Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all prophets of god pre-islam were muslims. |
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Term
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Definition
| Muslims can't decide. Either 1st revelation, which was revealed to Muhammad in 610 AD, but many Muslims believe that Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all prophets of god pre-islam were muslims. |
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Term
| Qur'an vs. Torah vs. Bible |
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Definition
| Muslims insist taht what is in the Qur'an that is also in the Torah/Bible is true. |
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Term
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Definition
| 15th Century, when this part of the world was discovered by Europeans/Portuguese. was near to Europe, to east. Farther away from Europe = "Far East," aka Asia. |
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Term
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Definition
| invented by British during WWII. From British perspective, was in between Asia, Europe, and Africa. |
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Term
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Definition
| related to Arabs. Indigenous population of the desert. |
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Term
| Middle East Control during Jahiliya |
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Definition
| Middle East controlled by 2 empires prior to rise of Arabia/Islam: Byzantine and Sasanid (aka Persian) empires. |
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Term
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Definition
| heir of Roman Empire. controlled all of Balkan, Asia Minor, Eastern shores of Meditteranean, Egypt, N. Africa. Capital was Byzantium/Constantinople/Istanbul. Official Religion: “Eastern Orthodox Christianity”- perfect god, perfect man, separate but combined in single person of Christ. Brought affluent material life to cities of middle east/areas that they controlled. Theatres, temples, public buildings all represent Byzantine affluent material life. |
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Term
| Issues in Byzantine Empire |
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Definition
| very materialistic, arrogant, compared to previous foreign rulers. But despite this, could not control middle east. empire could not force eastern orthodox christianity on people (especially non-greek areas like syria, egypt, etc.). people did not accept culture, language, day to day life of byzantine empire. those who accepted it were alienated. Similar situation to today: west unable to make way into Arab world, despite skill, etc. those who attempt to accept israeli/jewish way of life are detested, don't want to integrate. so: is this an age of ignorance, just because it's christians, not muslims? |
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Term
| two groups of church emerging from byzantine |
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Definition
nostorian (christ is to people, prominent in iraq). monphysite. coptic church of egypt (emerged during byzantine empire to disassociate selves from byzantine empire in all aspects, including believing in christ. wanted to believe in own way. jesus was just one substance. has a divine nature within his person.
in byzantine empire, these were heresies. but within non-greek population of empire, they united the people. |
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Term
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Definition
| middle east control during jahiliya. persian family. controlled both sides of Caspian Sea, Fertile Crescent, area between Tigris/Euphrates Rivers in Iraq. Official language: Phalavi. Official religion: Zoraastrianism. Founded Religion in 6th century B.C., teaches belief in a supreme deity (why it’s often spoken of as part of a monotheism, but is not part yet because he taught about two deities) |
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Term
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Definition
-two deities: Ahura Mazda: founder of moral order, source of light and darkness, creator of material and spiritual world.
vs. Ahriman: represented by darkness and disorder.
Zoraastrianism are apt to believe in one as opposed to another. eventually, all followers of Z would believe in Ahura Mazda, and once this happened, then Z would be seen as monotheism. struggle will continue until one supreme god prevails. |
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Term
| Similarities between Byzantine and Persian Sasanid Empires |
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Definition
Both Byzantine and Persian Sasanid Empires were autocratic and used religion as a tool of the state. (one used Christianity, other used Z).
-this enabled Arabs to take advantage of the situation and rapidly advance at the cost of these two empires.
-the two empires were constantly in a state of war and state of peace. constantly clashing. (ex: Sasavid came into Byzantine and captured Church of the Holy Seplichure in 611 AD. 618: drove Byzantine from Egypt).
-prior to rise of Islam, ME was controlled by two empires, and the empires were constantly at each others’ throats. so, islam could expand at empires’ expense. |
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Term
| Wars and States in the Arabian Peninsula during Jahiliya |
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Definition
-because two empires believed the Arabs were uncontrollable (especially Bedouin nomads). not worthwhile for them to conquer. Oil was not discovered then. Instead of occupying it, created two states:
Client Kingdoms:
-Ghassand (n. arabia) Byzantine empire
-Lakhmids (s. arabia) Sasanid empire |
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Term
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Definition
| 1.4 million square miles, today includes the “Gulf countries”- saudi, bahrain, UAE, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
-Arab history in Arabia goes back to 1,000 BC.
-origins of the Arabs merges with the origins of the Semites, but most historians say that arabs have origins in ishmael (abraham’s son). descendants of ishmael.
-arabs believe that they are descendants of abraham and are entitled to the promise of the “promise land”.
-don’t feel “less than”/ second class citizens/irrelevant because ishmael’s wife was a maid. |
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Term
| Origins of the Semites and Land Placement |
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Definition
winckler-caetani (historians) suggest that the ancient homeland of the semites (including the arabs) was the arabian peninsula.
-also suggest that the first semites were bedouins.
-theory that cultivated land became uncultivated, decline of peninsula productivity, poverty, which forced inhabitants to move to the fertile crescent. land become desert over course of millenia.
-argument over who were the original people of palestine- this offers theory that arabs were first. but, excavations have never taken place in arabian peninsula, so it is not proven. no evidence.
second theory: fertile crescent became overpopulated with arabs and semites, which caused them to move to the arabian peninsula. |
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Term
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Definition
most muslims are arab, and islam is derived from the peninsula. language, culture, history originated in peninsula. term evolved throughout history.
pre-islam: meant inhabitants of the arabian peninsula:
post-islam expansion, conquering of byzantine/persian empire; term Arab remained, but Arabs expanded location. so, arabs began to identify selves as inhabitants of arabian peninsula, although in different locations, also identified themselves separately as muslims.
up until 19th century: arab is a muslim from the arabian peninsula. |
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Term
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Definition
arabs divided on this feeling of belonging.
-nationalism & feeling of belonging should solely be based on Islam. one’s identity should be linked to Islam.
-others felt that identity/belonging should be to ‘Arabism”, or to Arabs.
-there are Christian/Jewish Arabs.
-others feel identity should be to a nation- yes, they have a common nation/language/culture, but belong to other nations. |
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Term
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Definition
loyalty to one’s abode. “watan” = country.
-still arguing about Arabs’ feeling of belonging. should it be to religion, culture, or nation?
-Arab: speaks arabic, identifies self as part of arab culture. |
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Term
| Social Structure of Arabs pre-Islam: Tribes |
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Definition
held together by need for self-defense because of hardship/danger of desert life.
law system: case by case system, families work out issues amongst selves.
held together by bloodline ties of descent through male line. |
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Term
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Definition
| Raiding. way of livelihood in tribes in pre-islam times |
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Term
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Definition
used pre- and post- islam. is the learned individual of Islam. accepted, held the “power of arbitration”.
Roles: protection of the weak, defiance towards the strong, hospitality to visitors, generosity to poor, loyalty to the tribe, fidelity to promises. |
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Term
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Definition
| god has control over our fate, but we must take initiative. |
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Term
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Definition
form related to Paganism of the ancient Semites. divinities prevailed throughout arabian peninsula.
associated with indigenous points of geography.
gods/goddesses never possessed abstract characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
term today is identified with Islam. pre-Islam, means “highly praised”. Many had this name pre-Islam. Is an Arab name.
post-Islam, name associated with Prophet.
other popular names: Issa (arabic name for jesus, or christ), Musa (moses), Abraham.
Muhammad was last of the prophets according to Islam. |
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Term
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Definition
| born 570 AD (unsure of specific date). known because Arabs pre-Islam knew this year as “the year of the elephant” (because this year, the Ethiopian Army marched with their elephants from Yemen to take over Mecca. upon arrival, they failed because of smallpox breakout among Ethiopians. Ethiopians forced out once and for all.) |
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Term
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Definition
Muhammad belonged to tribe Quraysh. family was Hashim, and family is part of larger tribe.
today, ruling family of Jordan is Hashemite- belong to family Hashim.
family was impoverished or well-to-do, but was well-known, respected. was a branch of the ruling tribe of Quraysh at that time. |
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Term
| Muhammad as orphan & guardians |
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Definition
born as an orphan (father died pre-birth, mother died when M was 6 years old)
Arab tradition: oldest man in immediate family becomes responsible for orphan. Grandfather assumed responsibility of M. when he was 12-13 years old, grandfather sent him to live in desert along nomadic tribes. wanted to familiarize him with nomadic lifestyle and teach him “good Arabic”. when grandfather died, his uncle took over upbringing, according to tradition. |
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Term
| Muhammad's Young adulthood: work and first wife |
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Definition
M brought up in Mecca- a very materialistic society. He was poor, but developed into a capable & honest merchant.
Young adulthood: worked for a widow (Hadije), who liked him and trusted him with care of her caravans & business. 15 years older than him, but she proposed.
-marriage was happy (probably)- he didn’t marry anyone else while she was alive
-she gave him the name “Emin”- “the trusted one”.
-had 6 children, only one daughter (Fatimah) |
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Term
| How Muhammad was chosen by God |
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Definition
o receive the first revelation and become the prophet:
-Quran says: God commanded Gabriel (the angel of revelation, angels don’t act without god’s instruction). M says: gabriel came to me in Hira while I was asleep with a coverlet (blanket) of brocade with something written on it. M was illiterate, couldn’t read or write.
Gabriel said: iqra! (recite!)
M said: what shall i recite? G pressed me with the blanket that I thought it was death and G said “recite!”
finally, G revealed to M first “surah” (chapter) called “recite” to Muhammad. |
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Term
| Muhammad's wife's reaction |
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Definition
M went to wife Hadije, shared experience with her, she was overwhelmed & pleased.
-people in Arabian peninsula had heard that the last prophet will eventually return, and she believed that he was it.
-jews/christians believed this as well- another prophet, known as messiah. |
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Term
| Muhammad's continued revelations |
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Definition
M continued to receive revelations from the angel Gabriel, M shared with friends/wife
continued until year 613 AD
-began to preach, was instructed to share these revelations with fellow Arabs |
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Term
| Mecca's capitalistic atmosphere |
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Definition
at time of Muhammad's continued revelations, Mecca was witnessing an “intense capitalistic atmosphere”
-resulted in concentration of wealth in the hands of certain powerful clans
-gap prevailed in Mecca between rich/powerful and poor clans.
-capitalist atmostphere produced a spirit of individualism.
-mitigated against tribal solidarity
-wealth viewed as a means to accumulate more wealth- idea was to hoard money, not share. this is against tribal ethics.
-people in Mecca were more materialistic, individualistic. outside of Mecca, people were different.
-also why M’s grandfather chose to send him outside of Mecca. |
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Term
| Muhammad's message in morals/ethics |
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Definition
opposite this materialistic way of life. in beginning, was a moralistic message.
-didn’t make sense to the people that there was one god, angels.
-stressed “no god but god”
-to attract men to religion, said that this god demands justice and mercy of his creatures- you rich people need to distribute money to the poor, be just, address needs of our society.
-early message was a moral message, not only saying that there’s only one god, but also that god requests mercy of his creatures.
-m upheld tribal ethics, needs of the poor, constantly preached that poor should live like everyone else. supported “cause of the weak”, and responsibility of the fortunate towards the unfortunate.
-this is what M’s one god teaches- these are all moral messages.
-demanded responsible use of wealth, and responsibility of each person to act rightly and fairly under god. |
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Term
| Acceptance of Muhammad's message |
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Definition
-in capitalistic, materialistic society, message was not fully accepted.
-M’s main supporters were those who weren’t benefitting from the system. weak, poor, relatives of rich.
-remaining non-supporters were very hostile (including own family)
-within two years (when he began preaching publicly) his early followers were forced to leave Mecca and return to Ethiopia- couldn’t survive, stay safe in Mecca
-M’s family protected him, was attached (at least verbally), did not survive harassment, rudeness, etc. |
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Term
| Death of Hadije and Uncle |
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Definition
year 619 AM, wife Hadije died. and uncle.
-striking: lost wife, supporter, companion, friend, uncle
-this changed things for M. Started to think about ways/means to survive.
-at this point, people from Medina (city near mecca, people aren’t muslims. started to support M. were not impressed by religion, but were impressed by the person |
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Term
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Definition
| center of worship, commerce. People from medina would go to mecca to learn censorship and make business |
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Term
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Definition
422 AD. 642: muhammad arrived in islam.
Arabs had own calendar.
-early arabs left egypt for other countries.
M left mecca to medina within 612 ad. Began to receive revelations about institutions of islam.
-basic beliefs of islam, look at revelations to M between 622-632. |
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Term
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Definition
Moral Message. -did not perform any miracles, only the Qur’an
-two muslim sisters sent to m as a gift, eventually one converted to islam after realizing that m was not a victim. |
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Term
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Definition
did not sit still, began to preach.
-immediately informed that his converts who had fled to ethiopia once M fled to Medina in 622-23.
-problems emerged: converts were farmers, needed much assistance.
-expected M to fulfill his promises, deliver what he preached, M should find a way to feed, accommodate, settle them.
-forced to leave their country, their families.
-joined him in Medina. |
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Term
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Definition
M sought assistance of the Ansar (“the helpers”) to assist the early converts/immigrants
-they did help- Islam teaches, muslims must help one another, Islam is basically a community of believers. expected to assist one another.
-but: couldn’t do it forever. when they first arrived, helped, settled, fed them. but early converts (muhajareen) ended up unemployed, living in poverty.
-early converts began asking M to deliver. find them a way to survive.
-M had very limited resources, but finally suggested that short of returning to Mecca to claim our property/belongings, the converts wanted M to allow them to disrupt the people of Mecca’s caravans.
converts wanted M to let them “raid” the caravans. |
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Term
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Definition
this brings them back to square 1: allowing raiding.
-M went along with it, because it was maybe the only chance to get along, survive, provide for the early converts.
-so: raided mecca-ian caravans so converts would become self-supporting.
popular pre-islam. muhammad allowed it. didn’t raid fellow muslims. raiding/stealing not in Qur’an. |
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Term
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Definition
in 624: M’s early converts attack mecca-ian caravan at small town called Bedier.
-caravan belonged to family of Ummayiad (established own place in Damascus)
-converts won, took most of belongings, victory was a “tangible sign of god’s favor”, believed that God enabled them to win because they were the believers
-also meant: booty, prisoners. booty divided among fellow muslims.
-1/5 of booty was given to Prophet Muhammad to support the needy members of the community. |
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Term
| Attacks on and between Mecca |
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Definition
People of Mecca were defeated, humiliated, and lost their belongings.
-1 year later, decided to take revenge.
-non-muslims seeking revenge on muslims (followers of prophet muhammad)
-reclaim belongings.
-625 AD: people of mecca defeated M and his followers, reclaim belongings.
-Muhammad himself was wounded.
-believers saw initial raids as an act of the will of god. Muslims started asking questions and wanting answers- how could god allow non-believers to humiliate and defeat them, and to injure the prophet muhammad?
-first time that muslims began asking these questions. second time: napoleon arrives in Egypt.
-God helps those who help themselves and initiate. just because you are a believer doesn’t mean that you can sit still. god doesn’t fight your battles. |
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Term
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Definition
-good initiative to protect ourselves.
-ditch constructed, Muslims felt semi-confident in next battle.
-next year: 627 AD: people did not like M being so close: muhammad was too close for comfort.
-started to think about fighting m and his followers again, and finishing him off once and for all
-people of mecca send forces to capture medina, eliminate M and followers
-they failed, because of the ditch that muslims dug around medina.
-was a reawakening, as far as muslims were concerned.
-many non-muslims in and out of medina were attracted to m’s message. |
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Term
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Definition
1952: nasser in egypt, lead officers in takeover.
-wanted to eliminate the power of the landlords.
-thought he needed to limit land ownership in egypt.
-muslims felt that this was communism/socialism and fought it.
-nasser had to rely on preachers of islam to accept the principle. and convince muslims that poverty/wealth is not related to the will of god- look at history of landlords and how they accumulated their wealth. |
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Term
| pilgrimage to Mecca and truce |
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Definition
many were happy to convert to islam
-628: M lead followers to Mecca to perform the pilgrimage.
-halfway there, people of mecca were waiting for him and welcomed him.
-mecca people suggested a truce (or hudna) and asked if M and followers would come to Mecca the following year.
-not as a conquerer, but as a guest to the city of medina to perform prayers, pilgrimage, etc.
-even before M, mecca was important because it’s where abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son Ishmael.
-M forces made it into Mecca, many people converted. |
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Term
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Definition
by 632 AD (muhammad’s death), many arabs throughout arab peninsula were followers.
-end of revelations.
-m was able to unite many parts of the peninsula. |
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Term
| Muhammad's problems with the Jewish community |
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Definition
in Medina and Taif
-they did not want to convert
-he tried to convert jews to islam, adopted a few jewish rituals to attract them
(like yom kippur fast, practice of facing jerusalem while praying (624-632 AD), changed back to mecca once jews didn’t convert)
-no success
-jews and muslims fought, jewish community was forced out. |
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Term
| Christians' attitudes towards Arabs vs. Jewish attitudes |
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Definition
Christian attitude towards Arabs was different than Jew attitude.
-one group of jews viewed arabs as ignorant, gentile, because they didn’t have a revealed book- once Arabs received book, questioned it- is it true?
-raised animosity.
-christians did not refer to arabs in this way, or question M’s message
Islam considers Jews and Christians people of the book, but questions truth of revelations of Bible and Torah.
-can see common verses in all three books- those similar verses are true revelations.
Things not in the Qur’an: cruxifiction of Jesus, so from muslim perspective, this is not a true revelation. |
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Term
| literacy and understanding of Islam |
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Definition
muslims do not have an angel to teach them islam. do not have muslim schools. many choose not to attend school.
-all they know of islam is what they hear.
-such a vast topic, and qu’ran is in classical arabic.
-even those who can read can’t understand what it says.
-gate of interpretation has been closed. only random explanations.
often practice and say things which are not consistent with teachings of islam. |
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Term
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Definition
are christians & jews nonbelievers? (khufar = nonbeliever, destined to hell)
-very clear that islam considers C and J “people of the book”.
-entitled to live in an islamic state, but paid jizya (tax), can marry inter-religiously. |
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Term
| Clash between Muhammad and Khabir Jewish Community |
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Definition
-not all jews involved in struggle- only khabir (name of town).
-during the 2nd infitada, slogans were written on walls of cities in West Bank: “khabir, khabir, all jews, the army of muhammad shall return”. and push jews out of our cities, villages.
-muhammad did not chase khabir community out because they were jewish. chased them out bc jews wouldn’t accept muslim as people. labelled them as “ignorant” because they did not receive a revealed book. when arabs received a revealed book, the khabir were confused, unhappy, and started to criticise/put down muhammad, his teachings, and revelation.
-this is why they fought: were prejudiced, did not want to accept muslims as equal human beings. criticized the book, revelations, etc.
-muhammad wanted to convert the jews to islam.
-m borrowed jewish rituals to ease attempted conversion, and also to neutralize the khabir critiques of islam.
-conflict because citizens of khabir would not accept m and the quran.
-animosity, distrust developed. |
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Term
| Judaism vs. Islam's prophet |
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Definition
| jews didn’t have a problem with muslims until m said he was a prophet. jews believed that there were no more prophets, and kept to themselves (away from arabs as well as christians, etc.) to facilitate keeping kosher, etc. |
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Term
| Muhammad's Accomplishments |
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Definition
all of M’s biographies agree that the impact of m’s teaching were
establishment of islam as a world religion
inspired the arabs to expand, at the expense of the byzantine and persian empires
currently, the land of islam extends from north africa to the arabian peninsula
emergence of a specifically arab-islamic culture
arabs pre-islam had own culture/way of life, m integrated islam into culture
arabization of the southern half of the mediterranean world. |
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Term
| Critiques of Muhammad's claim to prophethood |
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Definition
ricardo, st. john, & tolodo: medieval historians: stipulated that muhammad was alien to all known prophethood.
-say he was untruthful, evil of life, & unverified by miracles.
-his life emphasized that he was a human- all make mistakes, subject to every discreditable misfortune.
norman daniel: most medieval historians of the prophet assumed that whatever seemed less credible, will probably be true.
muhammad accused of being a dreamer, poet, fabricating the qu’ran, and using it to suit his needs and desires to justify his own sexual indulgences. |
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Term
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Definition
Khadije- 15 years older, she was 40, widow, big businesswoman, many children, only one survived- Fatima.
Muhammad married the others after Khadije died.
Sawdah: means “black”. wife of an immigrant who left mecca to ethiopia. wife of an early believer. 613-615. she & 1st husband went to mecca to meet M, husband died, afraid to go back to her family in Mecca. not acceptable to live on own.
thought family would make her renounce islam or kill her. so M married her.
Aisha: daughter of Abu Bakr- became the 1st caliph. M married her after the death of his uncle. made M stronger. married her to strengthen his position after death of his uncle. Abu Bakr was rich, strong, powerful. She was too young, and had to wait almost 3 years to consummate the marriage.
-story that during a battle, she ran off and cheated with another man (sifwan). bad rumors, M had to leave her for a couple of days. Allah (God) says she’s incident bc of verse in the qu’ran. |
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Term
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Definition
Hafsa: daughter of Omar (2nd caliph of Islam, man that conquered the city of jerusalem from byzantine empire). was married, lost husband in battle. married her for other reasons- wanted to reward her because she was the daughter of omar.
Zaiweb: husband died in battle, couldn’t live alone or support herself with food or anything. M married her to support her.
Hind: girl promised to M’s cousin. she didn’t want to marry the cousin, didn’t like him. refused to marry -older, unattractive man. M married her to “keep the promise” - she was promised to marry, be a wife, so M kept her promise and married her.
Zaiweb: forced to marry muhammad’s cousin, did not get along well. finally ask for divorce. women never ask for divorce- must have good, substantial evidence. both now and then. M intervened and married her to avoid her exposing bad things about his cousin (beating, not taking care of her, etc.)
Jowariyah: husband died in “battle of the ditch”, was taken prisoner, was a jew, was taken prisoner. M married her to show that all people were equal. |
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Term
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Definition
Safiya: also a jew taken prisoner. M married her to show that muslims and jews should live together.
Ramlah: left mecca to ethiopia. upon arrival, her family converted to christianity. she remained a muslim. when M heard the story, he proposed to her via the king of ethiopia, and she was allowed to return to mecca.
Mariya: daughter of coptic christian patiarch, who believed that m was the final prophet/messiah that christians had been reading about in the bible. patriarch sent m two girls and many gifts. two girls converted to islam, m married one, other married m’s friends. girls could have remained coptic bc male muslims can marry any religion. female muslims cannot. kids are muslim.
maimohnieh: m approached her family and asked to marry her in order to encourage her family to convert to islam. family felt good about marriage and converted.
did not all live together. |
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Term
| Images of Muhammad in western writings: Prideaux |
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Definition
west: image of muhammad = image of islam.
historian humphrey prideaux: book “life of mohamoaut”
dates to 18th century.
maintained that epileptic thesis.
muhammad’s quasi-noble birth, coupled with an ambitious mind, caused him to seek to rule arabia, taking the fastest route: prophethood.
-profound influence on 18th century view of prophet
-tried to defend christianity as true revelation, free from marks of impostors on character, claimed that he was on roman birth and not of mean/vile lineage.
-claimed M used quasi-noble birth for muhammad to become a prophet.
-p saw this as the fastest way for m to control arabia.
-dismissing M at this point. M couldn’t become a leader unless he claimed he was a prophet.
-insisted that M was suffering from epilepsy- he was subject to the “falling sickness”- pretended to be in a trance, and claimed that angel gabriel spoke to him.
-angel gabriel: angel of revelations.
-P said that M made up all stories that he shared with first wife khadije. she became first muslim.
-M’s life was “wicked” according to P. he allowed polygamy, failed to work any miracles, living in world of art of insinuations. |
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Term
| Image of muhammad in western writings: von grunebaum |
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Definition
von grunebaum: german, attributed m’s success to:
-defeated byzantine/persian empire
-political factors, unexpected assistance. (not specific examples).
-his religion was the most elaborate and consistent ever developed by an Arab. (racist!)
-try again: because his system was the most applicable and appropriate for that period.
-writings: believe that m and islam contributed many things to the Arabs
-aside from metaphysical meaning, it lifted Arabic to the level of other spiritual languages.
-discussion of the qu’ran and hadith: the quran (words of god) hadith (sayings of m) overlap.
-sharia is based on qur’an and hadith. von grunebaum believes that the two overlap.
-how to distinguish m’s words from god’s words? |
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Term
| why is the dome of the rock where muhammad ascended to heaven if he was buried in medina? |
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Definition
year 619 A.D.: god enabled muhammad to take miraculous journey from Mecca to Aqsa (means “farthest away”) (didn’t specifically say jerusalem). ascended to heaven here. upon muhammad’s return, instructed muslims to pray 5x/day.
only proof of journey is what was said in qur’an.
-took place during Byzantine rule of the city.
-637: arabs seized jerusalem.
-in 680s, dome of the rock was built, and a few years later, al-aqsa mosque.
Caliph Omar: seizure of city, made agreement with christians in city of jerusalem to maintain holy places, be able to worship, not feel pressure of muslims.
-no jews living in jerusalem during byzantine empire. not until city was seized by muslims that they lived there. |
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Term
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Definition
jerusalem is considered by muslims to be first “qibla” - place where fellow muslims face while praying. until 624/625 AD.
-muhammad adopted this from jews.
-was changed to mecca in 625 AD. |
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Term
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Definition
| Almost all of Muhammad’s biographies say that his preaching affected the establishment of Islam as a world religion, establishment of an Arab-Islam culture, inspired the Arab conquest (all of the land from n. africa to central asia). |
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Term
| Western misrepresentations of Islam |
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Definition
Medieval western writers misrepresented M and Islam in order to reinforce Christian dogma and provide fellow Christians amusement.
-must become aware of the fact that east/west tension is not a new phenomena, and did not emerge after 9/11.
-attacked the validity of the qu’ran as the true word of god
-tried to prove that the character of m was wholly incomparable to the concept of revelation. “how could god chose such a man?”
In one group of writing, M was the mouthpiece of a heretic/disappointed cardial who hated Rome, special hatred of Christian tradition, magician who used marriage for power, had epilepsy, saw theological reasons to convict m- saw worst in him- claimed his rise to prophecy was false.
During the Protestant Reformation (Medieval), religious leaders failed to re-appraise Islam. Martin Luther was more prejudiced against Islam than his predecessors.
-perhaps bc of turkish military threat.
-church was head and islam the body of antichrist. |
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Term
| perceived threat of Islam on Christianity |
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Definition
Threat of Islam on Christianity had subsided by 18th century, evangelical church did not feel threat of muslims.
-18th century historians continue to claim that M was antichrist.
-P and anglican church compared M with bishop of rome- both were antichrist, pope as antichrist, each universal pasture is a foot of the antichrist placed against christianity. M puts foot in east, bishop in west.
-accuses M of using islam to justify sexual behavior, etc. |
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Term
| Islam during the enlightenment and early romantic period |
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Definition
-writers in 18th century presented islam as the religion of nature, to attack christianity.
-18th cen historians say, no man will arrive at greatness/glory by being fake. don’t compare m with ceasar, etc.
-voltaire and gibbon reflect ideas of 18th century- attacked M to attack all revealed religions after christianity.
-judaism and islam have more in common than christianity and islam.
-18th century scholars characterize m as a “terrible man who establishes dogmas by arms”. his religion afterwards became more indulgent than he would have liked.
-M according to historians: from the ignorance, the credibility and inclination to enthusiasm- M might successfully set himself up as a prophet.
-died regarded as a great man, even though those who knew him saw him as an impostor. those who looked up to him did not always include prophethood respect. |
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Term
| 20th century writers on religion |
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Definition
nazzal says that 20th century historians say that muhammad was alien to all prophethood, unverified by miracles.
gibbons, shat, etc.
-divided into first half and second half of century.
-most did not deviate from image of medieval historians in 17th-19th century.
-were a bit more scholarly- gibbon said that persecution of religious wars- M may appeal to other religious leaders.
-if we remember the 700 wives of solomon, must look at modesty of muslims (m only had 13 wives)
-creed free of suspicion or ambiguity.
-imply that christianity lacks some of islam’s qualities.
-despite this positive critique of M, (m spoke a lot about unity of god- fellow christians, fellow jews). nothing that was asserted in middle ages was forgotten. M was an “illiterate barbarians”, both phonetic, barbaric, and cautious politician.
-also told that he was “something other than a genuine prophet”. decided whether title of enthusiastic/impostor was appropriate to describe him.
-also stipulated that M began as an enthusiast and as power corrupts, became a conscious impostor.
-felt that his imagination lead even him to believe that he was chosen by god.
-medieval writers say that there is nothing to prove that m was chosen by god.
-20th century, scholars began to question hadith, qu’ran. |
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Term
| scientific western scholars |
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Definition
miracles: qur’an itself- m illiterate, almost impossible to write quranic verse.
scientific western scholars: von grunnebaum, schakht of nyu, watt, and others.
-often referred to as “good arabists”- speak arabic, read qu’ran in arabic, know about arab culture and history. |
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Term
| Arab culture of submission |
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Definition
Arab culture: brought up in total submission.
-gaddafi story- one month in school, two weeks in army training- students exhausted, but would not tell gaddafi.
-did we change, or did we just make a new face?
-why would you wait for 30 years to speak out against total corruption?
-if something goes wrong, will we wait another 30 years? or has arab structure changed?
-people don’t like how we brought up our sons now: call parents by their first names, etc.
-no longer merciful. |
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Term
| changes in arab culture and family after 1st intifada |
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Definition
-during 1st infitada, woman, girls, boys, men went out and threw stones at the israelis. often parents would tell them not to, but they still would- women would go out and gather stones and pass out to youth.
-saw this as a tremendous change- not breaking family structure, but fleeing self from family obligations.
-happened until arafat came. arafat practiced very interesting thing- also what he learned from egyptian president nasser, mubarak.
-appointed heads of family clans/tribes/villages to various positions in gov’t.
-all of the sudden (within months), became very tribe-oriented and supported arafat via the one chosen tribe representative in gov’t. clan felt part of the gov’t.
-does real change have to happen in family first?
-cannot separate self from family here, cannot go out on own.
-M mixed prevailing tribalism with Islam, and ended up having an Arab-Islam mixed culture. simultaneous tribalism and clans.
-single women/divorced/mom unacceptable- even if economically independent, socially not allowed. |
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Term
| scientific examination of Muhammad's prophethood |
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Definition
-attempts to discredit M.
-in name of science, not because of being crazy, beliefs, etc. but because the social/military/cultural factors to his success.
-his success is related to his noble backround, enthusiasm, etc. - instead, focused scientifically on other factors.
-they stipulated/concluded that success story is because of social/economic/political/military contributions, not religious contributions.
-attributed success to many factors, some purely political, others legal. |
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Term
| Muhammad's legal system and other successes outside of prophethood |
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Definition
M’s legal system was the most practical and appropriate system for his period and islam.
-other factors which contributed to his success (not as a prophet):
legal/political/social/cultural contributions
unexpected assistance.
one way to disassociate M from islam. deviated from stressing religious aspects- stressed different systems as being components of success.
muslims say- how can you disassociate these systems from islam?
byzantine/persian empires: allowed islam to expand at expense of these empires.
conquests- could have been to find “new means of livelihood”. fighting to find new life, but also rationalizing expansion: if i win/survive, i improve my life. if i die, i am a martyr for fighting for islam/arab empire and go to heaven.
if empires were not weak, arabs would not have been able to expand. |
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Term
| confusing local practices with islamic law |
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Definition
-islam did not create polygamy. was well alive and practiced before qur’an.
-m did not want to create new system of law. just teaching his people how to act in order to pass day of judgement and pass into paradise.
-thinking people fabricated many sayings of M. (hadith)
-von grunnebaum: how can one distinguish between sayings of M and sayings of Qur’an, which he was simultaneously repeating? |
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Term
| authenticity of the qur'an |
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Definition
610-618 ad
665 AD: 35 years after m’s death- where was qur’an? who held it until then?
-valid questions that need answers.
-no one is in a position to interpret the qur’an- only to explain it- find out what words mean, etc.
-gate of “ishtehad”- interpretation- is closed. |
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Term
| evolution of religion, political systems, etc. |
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Definition
later on, are these political systems going to be secular? religious?
-these questions concern muslims, scholars, etc.
-are we beginning to open the gate of interpretation? question what is justice, what is democracy, what is right/wrong?
-will this eventually lead us back to islam, or back to democracy as westerners understand it? |
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Term
| opinions of additional factors in late 20th century |
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Definition
later on, are these political systems going to be secular? religious?
-these questions concern muslims, scholars, etc.
-are we beginning to open the gate of interpretation? question what is justice, what is democracy, what is right/wrong?
-will this eventually lead us back to islam, or back to democracy as westerners understand it? |
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Term
| evolution of intentions of researchers |
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Definition
attitude towards research depends on intentions of the researchers.
-what we read today about islam, judaism, christianity, depends in part on intentions of researchers and contemporary influences.
-today, read that muslims are terrorists.
-many medieval researchers looked at M/ islam apologetically.
-many western researchers today research apologetically as a means of authenticating christian doctrine- born-again christians’ view of islam.
-way of making one more authentic than other.
-historians under the assumption that whatever seemed less creditable was most likely to be true.
-this is the case today regarding islam and muslims.
-most of their efforts had no sympathy whatsoever to islam.
-confirming the greatness of M should not imply ignoring his supernatural/prophetic and spiritual milieu from which he came.
-rise of islam/success of m should be attributed to popular satisfaction with worshipping idols. not satisfied with prevailing religions during the time of M. |
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Term
| Christians vs. Muslim empire expansion |
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Definition
Christians threatened by expansion of Muslim empires- expanding at expense of christians, ottoman empire. etc.
-C felt threatened, developed fear, anger at muslims. |
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Term
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Definition
non-arab muslims do not speak arabic. are told that the words of god are arabic.
-do they understand islam, given the fact that muslims were not allowed to interpret it/the qur’an since the 8th century?
-god will judge whether fighters (even on behalf of islam) will end up in heaven.
-muslims weren’t interested in converting non-arabs to islam.
-economically, was much more beneficial for conquered people to remain non- muslims- they had to pay tax for themselves, children. amounted to a lot of money, big part of treasury.
becoming a muslim does not necessarily mean learning arabic
-essential only to learn to read some verses in qur’an for prayer.
-arab muslims did not force islam or arabic upon non-muslim arabs, or upon muslim non-arabs.
-were happy to enhance/expand economic position
-and also to follow religion.
-language/culture was never enforced.
as a result, non-arab muslims are the majority. |
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Term
| Caliph Omar's assassination attempt |
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Definition
Caliph Omar was almost assasinated (2nd caliph) because he didn’t go along with a fatwa that non-muslims converting to Islam should not be accepted.
-because some said that non-muslims were converting just to avoid the tax.
-it doesn’t take much to become a muslim- just have to say “there is no god but god and muhammad is his prophet” - no church, priests, etc. just between you and god. |
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Term
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Definition
muslim expansion began in 634- two years after muhammad died
-within ten years, were in control of fertile crescent, egypt, north africa, and to parts of europe.
-eastern europe: balkan, Czechoslovakia, cyprus, greece.
-expansion continued until 18th century
-north african muslims introduced to neighbors, without conquest.
-to indonesia- trade? |
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Term
| Islam beliefs: submission |
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Definition
islam comes from verb “islama”, meaning “surrender”, or “submit” to god’s will.
-islam puts human in a position of submission. total submission to will of god.
-islam is never to be imposed on the people.
-qur’an verse: “there is no compulsion in islam” “you have your religion, i have mine, and we are all responsible to the judgement of god”.
-there is a difference between the expansion of islam as a religion and the expansion of islam as a state.
-islam contains beliefs as well as rituals. |
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Term
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Definition
| suras/chapters revealed to Muhammad in mecca between 610-622 dealt mostly with basic beleifs and rituals (M died 632 in medina- no revelations after death). oneness of god, "icklas"- purity of faith. muslims must profess oneness of god, separateness, eternalness, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
-not a formed body
-or a measurable substance
-does not resemble bodies, either measurable or divisible
-not a substance
-not an accidental form
-not like anything that exists
-far removed from any notion of contact
-does not exist in anything
-nor does anything exist in him
-has 99 attributes/names
-represent god’s attributes |
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Term
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Definition
are created of light, and endowed with life, speech, and reason.
differences between human and angel:
-angels are freed from carnal desires and the disturbance of anger
-don’t disobey what god has commanded of them. do everything that god commands them to do
-also different from us fellow human beings
-their food is celebrating god’s glory
drink is to proclaim his holiness
conversation is to commemorate god
pleasure is to worship him |
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Term
| different forms/powers of angels |
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Definition
4 archangels: Jibril (gabriel, of revelations), Mikhail (michael, of rain), Israfil (announce day of resurrection), Azrail (of death)
recording angels: kiram ul-katibeen
examine the dead: monkar, nakeer
celebrated angels: radwan, malik
every one of us is accompanied by two angels at all times- kiram ul-katibeen (recording angels that record our good and bad deeds)
-two other angels to cross-examine each one of us upon death (monkar and nakeer)
-radwan- in charge of heaven/paradise. malik- in charge of hell. |
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Term
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Definition
islam teaches that god, throughout the years of the world, gave revelations of his will in books to several prophets.
104 sacred books. 10 books given to Adam, (not on test), 50 to Seth, 30 to Enoch (idris in arabic), 10 to Abraham - all of these 100 books were lost. last 4 were the pentituk, given to moses, psalms to david, gospel to jesus, and the qur’an to muhammad.
teaches that 313 prophets received revelations from god. however, only 25 of them were listed in the qur’an, including Adam, Noah, Heber, Methusalah, Lat, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Jethro, Aaron, Moses, David, Soloman, Jab, Isaiah, Jonah, Ilaiahs, Alicia, Zakariahs, John the Baptist, Jesus, Muhammad. |
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Term
| present copies of divine books (pentatuk, psalms and gospel) |
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Definition
| the present copies of divine books (pentatuk, psalms, and gospel) cannot be creditable. underwent many alterations and corruptions, though some of what they contain might be true if they were in the qur’an. but they are not, and are therefore not acceptable. |
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Term
| Muslim belief of Jesus, Mary, Christian concepts |
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Definition
apostles are free from telling lies, committing unlawful deeds, not stupid, lazy, cowards.
Christians believe that Mary was chosen by god to give birth to jesus.
islam doesn’t believe that jesus was cruxified- believe that someone like jesus was cruxified. believe that jesus will come back before the day of judgement and preach islam. only god and jesus are currently in heaven.
second coming is expected by muslims
don’t believe that jesus is the son of god. believe that he is the son of mary by the will of god.
jesus is the only prophet that did not experience death. was ascended to heaven, will come back and be alive.
don’t accept trinity of god. god is one (no god but god) and has no partner
dismisses what christians believe regarding position of jesus and relationship of jesus and god. |
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Term
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Definition
| declaring and reciting that god is one, and muhammad is his prophet. also sometimes used with rosary/prayer beads |
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Term
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Definition
Salat (prayers) _____ Du’a (spontaneous prayers)
-al-Fajr (dawn)
-al-dhur (noon)
-al-asr (afternoon)
-al-maghrib (sunset)
-al-isha (after sunset, no later than midnight |
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Term
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Definition
5 daily prayers are not mentioned in the Qur’an. according to the Sunna (tradition), Muhammad while making miraculous journey to Aqsa (farthest away), and then ascending to heaven after praying with prophets, met with God. During the meeting, god instructed him that muslims should pray 5 times a day instead of 3 times a day like jews.
this journey represents ascension to heaven
M shared this experience with his followers, and followers do not ask for proof and just accept principle.
also, two optional prayers: Salat al-Lail (night prayers), and Salat al-Duha (just before sunrise) |
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Term
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Definition
(call to prayer)
“god is great x2, i declare/witness that there is no god but god x2, i declare/witness that muhammad is the prophet of god, come to pray x2, come to salvation x2, god is great x1, there is no god but god x1” |
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Term
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Definition
| (ablution, washing of hands to wrist 3x (if no water, act it out), drink water 3x out of right hand because angel of good is on right shoulder, nose 3x, face 3x, wash hand to elbow 3x, over head 3x, ears 3x, neck 3x, feet to ankle 3x right to left) after prayer, supposed to declare that there is no god but god, god has no partner, m is god’s servant and prophet, may god make me a forgiver and pure. muslims must perform this before every prayer, and after prayer, and again if they go to the bathroom, pass out, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| qur’an does not require wearing of hijab. reason for it? -not enough water to wash hair every day, not enough money for many clothes in past? today- say it’s religious, but not all pray 5x/day. also about modesty- men aren’t attracted, parents are happy. now- more about identity- i am a muslim. but orthodox jews wear it as well. “distinguish from enemies”? -who’s enemy- west, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
Qibla (face mecca- were facing jerusalem. refer to jerusalem as : oola al-hiblateen - the first point of direction.
-also, name for jerusalem: bayt al-hods- the sacred house. al-qods is okay because it’s not a “house” |
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Term
| prereqs to prayer: rakaat |
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Definition
Number of Rakaat- how many times you lean down during prayer.
in morning: kneel twice. noon is 3 times, afternoon is 4 times, sunset 3 times, late night is 4 times. |
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Term
| fundamentals of prayers: niyya |
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Definition
| Niyya (intention) stand, shoes off, say “i place myself in the hands of god” |
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Term
| fundamentals of prayers: ihram |
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Definition
| Ihram (sanctification) - once you utter this, you separate yourself from the world around you. place self in hands of god. say allahu akbar (god is great). |
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Term
| fundamentals of prayer: aiyam |
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Definition
| Aiyam (standing), right hand over left |
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Term
| fundamentals of prayer: qura'a |
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Definition
Qira’a (recitation of Sura I of the Qur’an. Al-Fatiha. doesn’t matter ethnicity, must memorize this sura in arabic.) means in the name of god the most merciful. praise be to god, the cherisher and sustainer of the worlds. that who we worship, show me the way. and those who will not go astray.
choose a few verses of the qur’an to read. |
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Term
| fundamentals of prayer: ruku |
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Definition
| Ruku (bowing the body) say allahu akbar, “glory be to god the greatest” 3x |
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Term
| fundamentals of prayer: sujud |
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Definition
Sujud (to prostrate). touch forehead to ground, say “glory be to god, the highest” - because you are the lowest. 3x. repeat this twice, sometimes three, sometimes four depending on which floor. after first time, stand all the way up, then after that only sit on knees.
if not healthy enough, can pray from sitting position. |
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Term
| fundamentals of prayer: salam |
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Definition
Salam (peace greetings). read “abraham prayer”. sitting on knees all lined up.
bless angel on right shoulder, and all of the people to your left. shake hands often. okay because all have performed ablution. some do not like to shake hands because they do not like to lose ablution if others do not follow ablution.
no particular age to start, depends on family structure, etc.
there is no compulsion in islam- cannot tell people to pray, be religious, etc. so cannot tell your parents to. |
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Term
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Definition
shops closed, Ramadan.
many verses in Qur’an about it
unlike prayers, fasting is documented in the Qur’an. verses 185-7
usually required during Ramadan- 9th month of year is sacred because it’s when the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad.
fast from sunrise to sunset
month of Ramadan falls differently each year.
29-30 days.
pregnant women, the ill, women menstruating do not fast. must instead feed needy people- one meal per day that you missed. contribute food.
if you just miss a day of fasting, can make it up.
Eat Iftar at dinner with friends, family. can be very expensive, cook every day for large groups.
after ramadan- eid.
not all muslims begin fasting on the same day- see the moon, declared that fast will begin/end on that certain day. |
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Term
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Definition
every muslim is required to account for his wealth on a yearly basis and donate 10% of wealth to the poor.
if cannot find poor people, give to Wakaf/Waqf- Muslim endowment.
preferably during Ramadan, sit and account for your wealth- car, house, etc.
some don’t have cash to give to poor, so donate property- 33% of jerusalem is owned by Waqf. property remains in their name, and Waqf rents it out, uses as schools, hospitals, mosques. whoever donates land leaves name on land ownership.
after death, some donate things to Waqf. Waqf can’t sell it, but can charge rent.
alms is not to children- is to poor.
what if country leaders gave 10% of wealth to poor of own country? better solution to aid. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca): once in a lifetime (if you can afford it and are in good health- don’t want to travel and pay later, or die during it- god is everywhere, don’t have to die there to be closer to god |
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Term
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Definition
Ihram- muslims commanded to wear a white, seamless garment (thob) to symbolize the search for purity and to separate oneself from the ordinary world on the way to mecca. normally change right outside of mecca. men and women should get rid of jewelry and other personal adornment- no wedding ring, watch, etc.
only time that islam teaches that you’re not allowed to wear jewelry/personal adornments.
some say that the qur’an states you shouldn’t wear gold. this may be overly muslim. is this actually in the qur’an/hadith? can’t be found. difficult to distinguish between what is actually called for in sharia, and what is just said.
we know that this is the rule for arriving to mecca, but not otherwise.
must also shave head- women cut a piece of their hair.
part of purity, but also of equality. money not a factor. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mina- on the 8th day of the 12th month of the year (islamic calender), called the Hijje, pilgrims proceed to Mina. a small, uninhabited town 5 miles east of Mecca. spend the night meditating and praying. next morning, move as a group to: |
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Term
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Definition
| Mt. Arafat (mount of mercy): come here after mina. there, as a group, they face mecca, meditate, and pray. many of the pilgrims spend the entire time standing from noon to sunset, praying for forgiveness from god. others decide to go up to the mount to climb it. commemorates the events in which muhammad delivered his last sermon before he died. before sunset, a cannon sounds. |
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Term
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Definition
| Muzdalifa- pilgrims proceed here. they worship, sleep under the stars after gathering pebbles to take with them the next morning to next stop. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mina- next morning, go back to mina and throw the pebbles at three whitewashed pillars. done to commemorate an event: despite satan’s many attempts to prevent abraham from sacrificing his son ishmael. (satan appeared to abraham in mina). muslims throw stones at three pillars which represent satan. to approve abraham’s willingness to sacrifice ishmael, despite fact that he was approached by satan. stones represent the repudiation of evil. |
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Term
| feast of the sacrifice of hajj |
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Definition
the feast of the sacrifice. pilgrims buy a goat or sheep and sacrifice it to commemorate abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son ishmael.
known as eid al-adha. muslims sacrifice goats/sheep in own home and give some to poor, keep some for selves. muslims worldwide perform sacrifice together for a few days. |
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Term
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Definition
Tawaf/Mecca: once pilgrims perform sacrifice, proceed to mecca. more or less the end of the pilgrimmage. go to Ka’aba and do the “tawaf”- circling of the black stone, chanting. circle as many times as they like. some say 7 times, but no documentation of this necessity. radio stations, tv recites it. “i besiege you god, i besiege you god, and declare that you have no partner. our gratefulness, blessings, belongings to you. you have one and have no partner”.
black stone (before islam) is meteorite. arabs believe that it is heavenly.
after this, most pilgrims (some are done) decide to go to an area called zamzam, where a well is located. recreate the search for water by Hagar.
islam teaches that there was no water, and Hagar was in search of it, and suddenly a miracle occurred and a spring started. today, it’s the well of zamzam. pilgrims go to drink water, bring water from well. commemorates an act of Hagar running for water. |
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Term
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Definition
pilgrims return home. upon return, relatives are waiting for them. in main entrance of the household, write in arabic, “praise be to god (hamdulilah) Hajj/Hajja (then name)”
from now on, referred to as Hajj/Hajja. very prestigious name. sometimes term is just used out of respect.
-not necessary if cannot afford- don’t go beyond financial and physical bounds.
-people called “hajj” or “amee” out of respect.
-hajj consists of seven steps.
-after completing hajj, are expected to be more religious in practice. so uplifting that it’s a burden? |
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Term
| belief in qur'an and islam scriptures |
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Definition
-Qur’an: words of god revealed to M between 610-632 AD.
-first revelation at mount Hira, just outside of Mecca.
-last revelation: before he died in year 632
-114 chapters (mary is one, the cow is another.)
-some chapters referred to as Meccian (of mecca)
-other are referred to as “Medinian” - revealed in medina
-each chapter specifies this. |
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Term
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Definition
610-622 AD are basically dealing with God, basic beliefs, rituals, overall introduction to Islamic belief. If you wish to learn about islamic beliefs, refer to Meccian chapters which were revealed during this time period.
622 AD: M left Mecca, went to Medina. year number 1 in Islam. also the beginning of the so-called muslim umma (community)
622-632 AD: deals with islamic jurisprudence, dealing with social system, political system, economic system of islam. to learn about islamic law, understand muslim systems. |
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Term
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Definition
Qur’an not written until 656 AD: many years after M’s death. questions arise about issues in writing, remembering.
-why not compiled before prophet m’s death?
-656 AD - during time of Uthman’s caliphate.
-issues are sited in Edward Said’s works.
-questions often do not have answers, at least from a Muslim perspective
Qur’an is not written in a chronological order.
-do not know which chapter was revealed first.
-Meccian and Medinian chapters are mixed. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Qur’an and Hadith make up Sharia
-shari’a = Islamic law |
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Term
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Definition
Muhammad died without leaving directions for how to administer islamic state after him.
-said all along that he was the last of the prophets.
-do not know if it was intentional/unintentional or god’s will to not say anything about who should carry on the administrative tasks (not spiritual tasks bc he is last of the prophets).
-immediately after death, people began to discuss what they should do- who should be caliph (successor to the prophet Muhammad, administratively speaking).
-started to debate amongst themselves. some felt very strongly that his cousin and son-in-law Ali should be the next caliph. |
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Term
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Definition
-Followers of Ali: supporters of Ali. muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law. followers insisted that he should be the Caliph.
-developed a principle which became principle of shiite sect- principle of legitimacy.
-insisted on Ali being caliph bc he was a relative of the house - he is a member of the house of the prophet muhammad (hashim clan).
-one step further: said that some of them heard M say (aka hadith) at a place called Ghadir (outside of mecca) that those who follow me (aka muslims) must follow “them”- Ali, Hussein (oldest son), and Hassan (youngest son).
-one group within muslim community which insisted that ali should be first caliph. |
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Term
| Electing a successor to muhammad |
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Definition
-others stated that they should elect one among them. free elections as arabs practiced- electing heads of pre-islamic state based on qualifications to mediate.
-while everybody was talking/debating, Omar I (who was very close to M), stood up and silenced everybody by saying that he nominated Abu Bakr. |
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Term
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Definition
Abu Bakr: M’s father-in-law, right hand man of M, M’s companion who accompanied M during M’s migration from mecca to medina. old, respectful man.
-everybody went along with it. how dare anyone question the ability/qualifications/righteousness of abu bakr.
-so, abu bakr became first caliph- was old, and only lead for a few years.
-lead muslim conquest/expansionism.
-issues of succession were not resolved.
-was aware that after his death, there was threat of m’s going through succession debate all over again. |
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Term
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Definition
| abu bakr nominated omar before his death. knew that there was threat of succession debate all over again |
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Term
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Definition
after abu bakr. Omar: commander in chief, seized jerusalem, capable leader, close companion of M, M’s son-in-law.
-became next caliph: between 634-644
-issue of succession was still not resolved.
-before Omar died, instead of resolving it, he appointed committee of 3-4 people and asked them to nominate one of them to become next caliph.
-Members of committee decided upon Uthman (644-656)
-immediately after approval, Uthman realized that he was chosen by the committee bc he was the weakest among them, and they chose him in order to maneuver their ways around him and have him as a caliph only by name.
-so, he appointed members of his family to every gov’t position in response.
-was immediately accused of Nepotism, and Muslims went to his home, stoned his home, and killed him after 12 years. |
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Term
| question of succession after omar's assassination |
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Definition
Immediately after assasination, question of succession was not resolved, and issue of assasination was a problem in the Islamic community.
-muslims decided to elect Ali (muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law), whose followers later became the shiites and wanted him to become first caliph.
-served from 656-661
-in 661, clan of uthman (ummayyids) challenged Ali’s leadership (how dare you accept caliphate without punishing those who killed uthman) and got rid of him- killed him.
Ali’s oldest son supported umayyids, youngest son did not and was killed. |
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Term
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Definition
new dynasty established after omar's assassination: Umayyids 661-750 AD
-ruled in Damascus, not Mecca. ruled the arabian peninsula, came to mecca, established caliphate.
-their own succession: father to son. question pushed aside.
-leadership within islam became hereditary throughout Umayyids, Turks, etc.
-helps to understand present situation in libya, egypt, etc. |
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Term
| islamic sects: Rashidun Caliphate |
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Definition
Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 AD
Caliphs:
Abu Bakr 632-634
Omar I 634-644
Uthman 644-656
Ali 656-661 |
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Term
| effects of succession issues |
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Definition
So: the question of the caliphate and succession to the prophet muhammad was the beginning and basic cause for the rise of different sects in islam.
-to M who want to go back and revive past, the past is not perfect. it needs to be re-evaluated and analyzed. for us to say that the answer to our problems is to go back, we go back and find the same question of succession which has not been solved. |
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Term
| muhammad's question of succession |
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Definition
muhammad taught that he was the “seal” of the prophets
-didn’t address question of succession
-took it for granted that muslims will proceed as they did pre-islam and elect one among them to be a leader, first caliph. |
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Term
| muslims can't decide successor and become divided |
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Definition
muslims were unable to decide who successor should be
-whole issue was put aside
-commanders adopted “baya’” - recommend someone, and have rest confirm it.
-question was never really addressed
-today, continue to suffer as a result of this
-arab country upheaval is very much related to question of succession (how long leader should run country, obligations, duties)
muslim community divided.
-some felt strongly that first caliph should be a relative of muhammad
-ali (m’s cousin and son in law) seen as most appropriate by some
-his followers feel that muhammad said that those who follow muhammad should follow ali, hassan, and hussein.
-felt that caliphate should be restricted to m’s family.
-majority felt otherwise: that caliph should be elected
-omar nominated baya’ and abu bakr |
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Term
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Definition
muslims were unable to decide who successor should be
-whole issue was put aside
-commanders adopted “baya’” - recommend someone, and have rest confirm it.
-question was never really addressed
-today, continue to suffer as a result of this
-arab country upheaval is very much related to question of succession (how long leader should run country, obligations, duties)
muslim community divided.
-some felt strongly that first caliph should be a relative of muhammad
-ali (m’s cousin and son in law) seen as most appropriate by some
-his followers feel that muhammad said that those who follow muhammad should follow ali, hassan, and hussein.
-felt that caliphate should be restricted to m’s family.
-majority felt otherwise: that caliph should be elected
-omar nominated baya’ and abu bakr |
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Term
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Definition
majority in the muslim world.
-out of 1.2 billion, 950 million are sunni.
-referred to as “traditionalists” (sunni means traditionalist).
-means persuing qur’an, hadith, muhammad’s way of life.
-referred as ahlu al-sunni wal-jammaah: adherents to the traditions and the assembly.
based on qur’an and hadiths and four schools of thought (not sects. sunni accepted sharia, and also the principle of analogy, consensus, and private opinion. but divided regarding this.): |
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Term
| divided opinions of sunnis: abu hanifa |
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Definition
| abu hanifa: most open-minded. encouraged use of analogy, consensus, private opinion. sunni followers are in turkey, india, central asia. |
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Term
| differing opinions in sunni: ibn malik |
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Definition
ibn malik: (son of malik). stressed qur’an, hadith- all schools did. acknowledged authority of the consensus of the people of medina only. bc people of medina were familiar with muhammad’s traditions and sayings. they participated in muhammad’s attempts to establish and develop the muslim community in medina.
sunni muslims following this are in spain, north africa (egypt, libya, tunisia, algeria, morocco) |
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Term
| differing opinions in sunni: shafii |
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Definition
shafii- student of ibn malik, left and taught in cairo and baghdad. felt use of consensus should be wider and include all muslims. not restricted to medina. refuted his teacher’s teachings. felt strongly that hadith, qur’an, sharia, consensus of people is best way to proceed.
followers in palestine, lower egypt, eastern africa, parts of india.
consensus: does not imply interpretation of qur’an or hadith. |
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Term
| differing opinions in sunni: haubali |
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Definition
| haubali- rallied against teacher shafii, no private opinion, analogy, or consensus. only use qur’an and hadith. this along with ibn malik is most conservative. |
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Term
| sunni prevalence in middle east/arica |
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Definition
99% of muslims in algeria are sunni, 70% in kuwait, 80% in afghanistan. majority in israel, egypt, turkey, palestine (65-70%), sudan, syria, libia (97%), jordan, iraq (50%).
bahrain - (30% sunni, 70% shia), iran. |
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Term
| sects/movements of islam: sufism, wahhabi |
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Definition
Sufism: one of the sects that emerged out of Shiites
Wahhabi: not a sect. a movement. leader into practices within islam, not basic beliefs/rituals. |
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Term
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Definition
| came in 750, challenged arab-dominated caliphate, established caliphate in iraq, close to shiites who supported them. |
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Term
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Definition
-caliph should have been ali
-only after assasination of ali by mu’awiya in 661, jummayyad, were called shiites.
-ali’s oldest son hassan decided not to champion them, paid allegience to mu’awiya, and did not want struggle.
-youngest son hussein took it up on himself to pursue the struggle/cause of his father’s followers and establish the shiite sect
-was later challenged by mu’awiya and was also assasinated
-was in saudi arabia when father died, immediately left saudi, went to iraq and lead father’s followers.
beginning of the shiite sect. |
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Term
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Definition
identify selves with twelve sons/grandsons of ali and his sons.
-since the assasination of ali, hassan and his sons and grandsons (total of 12) became imams.
-today, are told there are 12 shiite sects- some refer to selves as “twelvers” referring to 12 descendents of ali and sons, others refer to selves as seveners, fifths, etc.
-in addition to the 12 sects, also have other sects that emerged from the 12 sects.
-like the druze (not part of 12), sufis, khawerij, harajites. |
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Term
| foundations of shia: homage |
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Definition
homage: claim that ali should have been the first caliph, and his sons/grandsons should have been the caliphs of islam.
say m designated ali to be caliphs of islam.
establishment of principle of legitimacy
rejected way that omar nominated abu bakr. believed it was not arab tradition of electing a leader- elections represented by more than one candidate. question how omar, abu bakr were nominated and confirmed to become a caliph.
also case in egypt: |
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Term
| foundations of shia: return of imam |
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Definition
follow somebody who is expected to return. every life nowadays is temporary.
real life, truth, justice, mercy will prevail after imam
shiites were expecting a total of 12
imam inherits superhuman qualities. He (only one who has disappeared and is expected) has power of interpretation.
infallible in public and private conduct
but: did ali have divine qualities? how could he be challenged and assassinated? |
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Term
| foundations of shia: ali's power |
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Definition
believe ali is above all human beings, almost a prophet
shiites believe that god/angel gabriel committed a sin in revealing qur’an to muhammad not ali.
ali ordered those who believed this to be killed
this only reinforced followers’ belief that he was god- only god can have sinners killed/burned |
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Term
| foundations of shia: dissimilation |
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Definition
dissimilation: you should never feel as part of the community. should always keep feelings inward and not assimilate
only time to be outward is when imam returns
maybe why they didn’t show emotion- went along with other caliphates until ali had caliphate
takiya: concealing everything inside. being very secretive. |
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Term
| foundations of shia: regret |
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Definition
regret: feel badly that they didn’t protect hussein, ali’s youngest son, against mu’awiya.
in habit of hurting/punishing selves (especially among hezbollah in lebanon) |
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Term
| foundations of shia: absente/disappearance |
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Definition
absente/disappearance: being absent in daily life- not to disappear, but absent because the imam disappeared. only thing to do is be totally absent until hidden imam comes back.
don’t express opinions, emotions. exist temporarily. real life becomes so when imam reappears. |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite in nationalism |
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Definition
Sunnism/the Sunnites are linked with Arab Nationalism. they are the majority of muslims in islam.
Is a movement away from the ideal state- from sunni perspective, ideal state would take place only after day of judgement and in heaven.
Shiites: close to iranian nationalism, identity, culture.
are the minority group in islam
a movement which stresses the possibility of an ideal state- don’t believe that muslims need to wait until the day of judgement/gathering in heaven to establish ideal state. ideal is possible and will be so after the return of the mahdi (the imam that they are expecting)
different sects identify themselves with different imams- 12 total, each has belief in own imam. |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite in thought and interpretation |
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Definition
Sunnis depend upon the Sharia, Hadith, and four orthodox schools of thought.
believe in analogy, consensus, private opinion (some more than others). imam can decide finally which is accepted.
Sunnis do not believe (since 9th century) in ijtehad (interpretation of qur’an). accept tahsir (explanation).
Shiites accept the principle of interpretation, as long as it is done by the imam. but, there is no ongoing interpretation of the qur’an today. because khomeini, etc. are not imams- are waiting for them. |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite: caliphs |
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Definition
Sunni accept the first three caliphs as being legitimate (abu bakr, omar, uthman), but don’t say anything about Ali. but since they specify that first three are legitimate, makes ali illegitimate.
not a single shia calls himself or sons by the name of the first three caliphs. as far as they are concerned, ali was rightful successor of prophet muhammad. refuse to identify themselves with first three caliphs. |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite: obeying god, muhammad |
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Definition
Sunni believe that obeying god and prophet muhammad is enough to entitle muslims to paradise, provided that god decides this destiny. qualifies.
Shia believe that obeying god is fine, and prophet muhammad is fine, but they wait for the hidden imam who will assist shiites in being true believers. believe that present day is temporary, even one’s association with god, and is not determined until hidden imam returns |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite: power of imam |
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Definition
Sunni believe that Imam (leader of prayers) is an ordinary man, and is not god’s emiceries, and do not have Ali’s or Ali’s descendent’s powers.
Shiites: believe that the imams that they are waiting for are infallible, are not ordinary men. |
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Term
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Definition
| Many sunni muslims consider shiites to be infidels. this is not often said or shared or discussed. They don’t believe that they are true believers in god and the prophet muhammad. |
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Term
| legitimacy of successors/empires |
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Definition
legitimacy: abu backer and omar: were singular candidates, no alternatives, did not have a choice. questionable legitimacy.
some say only way to regain legitimacy is to go back to the rashidun caliphates. but question of leadership/state was still a mess. legitimate leaders should be nominated and confirmed.
what makes ummayyads legitimate? just killed ali and established leadership in damascus- is this legitimate? muslim? people don’t talk about this.
from 15 century- persian and turkish empire, sunni vs. shia. inviting europeans to come in and build empire.
kurds - are in iraq. part of ottoman/turkish empire. only after turkish empire was dismantled during WWI did ethnic groups emerge and struggle to become independent. before WWI, were all part of ottoman/turkish empire. new feeling emerged. began to see local/wataniya nationalism. loyalty to sect (druze), etc. |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite: basic beliefs in god, muhammad, qur'an |
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Definition
Basic beliefs: there is no god but god and muhammad is his prophet. both sunni and shia believe this.
shia add to this: believe that ali is god’s vice regent.
Sunni: Qur’an is from god, revealed to muhammad by angel gabriel, with no errors.
Shiite: believe sunni have created things and added things which are not part of original Qur’an. are waiting for imam to return and verify what is truthful and created/untruthful. in meantime, believe that qur’an is created. |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite: basic beliefs in fasting, zakat, prayer, pilgrimmage, hadith |
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Definition
fasting, alms-giving is practiced by both.
sunnis believe in zakat (counting wealth and giving to poor.)
shiites believe in flagellation- beating selves to feel sorrow/regret in not protecting hussein enough (son of ali) when he was assasinated.
prayer direction: both face Mecca.
Pilgrimage: both believe in visiting Mecca.
Sunni forbid pilgrimage to tombs/graves
shiites feel strongly about going to mecca while simultaneously going to iraq to visit Ali and Hussein’s tombs.
Hadith: sunni believe that these were the words of god.
shiite believe that there are many errors in hadith, and that many have been added, modified, fabricated to suit sunni perspectives in life. |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite: temporary marriages |
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Definition
until 624 AD haber (jewish tribe/community who had confrontation with prophet) - until then, sunni muslims practiced temporary marriages. have now been stopped/forbidden.
shiites still allow temporary marriages- even if you are married, you are able to make a contract with another wife.
was started to prevent adultry/affair. women entitled to certain things before/after. must be able to afford to have a temporary marriage for a few months and be responsible for contract. many conditions/obligations set. is right of the man to divorce. (shia- arabic, shiite- english) |
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Term
| sunni vs. shiite: seal of prophets |
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Definition
Sunni- believe that muhammad is the last of the prophets. shia- muhammad was the final prophet, but believe in 12 different imams and prospect of return of these imams, even though it’s insisted that these imams were prophets.
once the imam comes, will have ideal state, ideal way of life. |
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Term
| entanglement of judaism, christianity, islam |
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Definition
judaism was entangled in the state of israel. created problems which are still unresolved. israel does not have a constitution. say it’s a democratic state, but is state separate from religion?
-rise of state of israel raised many problems which are still unresolved.
-christianity during first formative years was antagonistic to state with which it only later became involved.
-islam, unlike C and J, from very beginning, from the lifetime of its founder, was the state. no question about it not being a state nowadays.
-every single arab/muslim state has declared that islam is the official religion of the state. accordingly, state should implement sharia (qur’an and hadith). fact that it is not being carried out is a big question.
-islam from the beginning was associated with power. |
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Term
| stages of development: 1. loose confederacy/federacy |
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Definition
loose confederacy/federacy - Muhammad 622-632 AD
M was a soldier, statesman, head of state, founder of an empire.
associated with M’s important migration from Mecca to medina and establishment of muslim state in medina (622 AD)
prior to rise in islam in arabian peninsula, arabs had a “greek state” - loose states based upon tribalism.
muhammad emerged as the prophet of islam and established the muslim community.
before he was able to control all of arabian peninsula, was able to create a loose confederacy based on islam.
muhammad died, |
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Term
| stages of development: 2. unitary state |
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Definition
unitary state - rashidun caliphates 632-661 AD
historians insist that the islamic state during this period was unitary- united based on islam.
after was assassinated in 661, mu’awiya of the ummayyids took over.
uthman, assassinated in 656 because of nepotism.
between 656 and 661, ali became 4th caliph. ummayyids, led by mu’awiya, challenged ali and claimed that ali’s caliphate/position/leadership is not legitimate because ali accepted being the 4th caliph before he inquired and punished those who were responsible for the assassination of uthman. they wanted revenge. |
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Term
| stages of development: 3. imperial state, ummayid caliphate |
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Definition
imperial state - Ummayyad Caliphate 661-750 AD
established a caliphate in damascus- not in arabian peninsula. got rid of ali.
arab influence was dominant- was known as an islamic state, but was also really an arab, family-oriented state. arabs were only ones accepted into army, involved in administering state. arab element was predominant. that’s why they call it imperialist- arabs were imperialists, at expense of non-arab muslims.
imperial arab state lasted until 750
750: non-arab muslims and dissatisfied arab muslims got together and revolted against ummayyids, destroyed ummayyids caliphate, and established a caliphate and islamic state in iraq. |
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Term
| stages of development: 4. universal state, abbasid caliphate |
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Definition
universal State - Abbassid Caliphate 750-850
in iraq.
referred to it as universal state, because the state was administered in accordance to islam, not arab tradition.
was an islamic state in all aspects.
850: elements (different people who united to get rid of ummayyids) started to fight with each other. |
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Term
| stages of development: 5. sovereign state |
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Definition
sovereign State- Ethnic + dynastic + religious states 850-1250 AD
began to witness the rise of sovereign ethnic/dynastic/religious states throughout the area.
ethnic, religious, dynastic groups began to develop their own states
fatimids, mamluks in egypt, fertile crescent.
turks came and confronted all of these ethnic/dynastic/religious states, dismantled them, united all arabs/non-arabs under their ottoman/turkish rule until WWI.
was the turkish/ottoman state universal? more turkish than arab? was it unitary? yes- united all different ethnic/dynastic/religious groups together under their umbrella. imperial bc turkish element was predominant, but depended on arab element bc qur’an was arabic, and needed arabic-speaking people to interpret and put qur’an into practice. universal? yes- islam was the religion of the state, but ottoman/turkish empire developed a system called the “millet” system- extended rights to minorities in ottoman empire to speak own language, practice own religion.
old city is living example of millet system- divided into quarters. like how ottoman empire was divided and subdivided.
ottoman-turkish empire decided to join germany/axis in the war, lost the war, and lost the empire. |
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Term
| stages of development: 6. national territorial states |
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Definition
National Territorial States - WWI-present
beginning of 1920’s, witness the rise of national state- Palestine, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon. these states did not exist pre-islam.
there were “regions”, but whole area was known as fertile crescent, not independent states until after fall of ottoman empire. then saw different nationalisms.
this is the situation today. |
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Term
| nature of the islamic state: muslim leaders |
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Definition
Muslim leaders
Kalifa
mufti
sheikh
katib
imam
ayattallah
mu’azin
qadi |
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Term
| why did the ummayyids build the dome of the rock and al-aqsa mosque? |
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Definition
-seize jerusalem, built in late 600s- 658. al aqsa mosque built in 700.
-why did umayyids build it?
-as soon as they established themselves in damascus, they were isolated and alienated because they killed ali. non-muslims didn’t identify themselves with umayyids because of the arab element.
-many muslims in fertile crescent didn’t dare to go to mecca to perform the pilgrammage. an alternative was needed.
-so, ummayyids built dome of the rock to signify muhammad and give an alternative to muslims who were too afraid to perform pilgrimmage at mecca. |
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Term
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Definition
Since WWI, no evidence that an islamic state prevails.
-no conclusions that an islamic state really exists.
-most arab states declare that islam is their religion, and in groups of states.
-many/most of the states don’t administer state in accordance to sharia completely.
-can’t say that any present arab/non-arab leaders are the equivalent to a caliph.
-caliph: someone who is in position to administer a state after the prophet muhammad.
what we have in the 20th century is not a new phenomenon
-can go back in history and point out.
-caliph has not administered according to sharia/islamic law.
is a theocracy, but not really- no form of god on earth like the pope.
-islam is a no-mocracy: a sate which is administered by sharia/the law- qur’an and hadith. |
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Term
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Definition
so, society created by god.
-teaches that god is its ruler.
interestingly enough, human beings are described in the qur’an as being apt to error.
-there is good and evil within us. this is important.
-society seen as indispensable for survival of humans- socially, economically, etc.
-law of state is one thing, society is another.
only god can live alone- islam saying. humans cannot.
-so, individuals’ rights/oblivgations have always been defined in terms of the communities’ interests.
-this is very unusual, in all aspects.
islam is a way of life in all aspects.
-consciously or unconsciously practice the prevailing customs and devisions.
islam community cannot work until have authority. god’s define laws and regulartions- except from an authority leader.
-refer to islam as a theocracy. attach authority to god. |
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Term
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Definition
| state (even though god is the aurhtoiry), state runs according to laws and regulations which were revealed to prophet muhammad. |
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Term
| necessity of state/god's state on earth |
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Definition
| -for good of mankind, state is necessary. laws are necessary. state sees that muslims are kind to one another. islam and god's state on earth is based on community (umma) and sharia. absolute authority only vested in god- supremacy of sharia. |
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Term
| islamic constitution breakdown |
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Definition
islamic constitution only has two important organs:
-the sharia: aka islamic constitution
-has the executive
and the judicial. |
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Definition
| successor to the prophet muhammad |
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Term
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Definition
| expert on islamic law, educated, assure that each law doen't conflict with others. not in a position to interpret qur'an. can examine new decrees which are not religious, and assure the leaders and people that these laws don’t contradict muslim laws and regulations. |
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Definition
individual who performs friday sermons.
-only on friday, have sermon between prayers. |
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Definition
| person who calls the prayer. goes through process of learning how to chant the qur’an. |
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Definition
| the judge in islamic society. |
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Term
| islamic state: national and fully sovereign? |
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Definition
-the islamic state is not fully sovereign, because according to islam, sovereignty rests only in god. god is the only sovereign. individuals/state cannot be.
-is also not national. because islam teaches that the muslim community consists of peoples who may belong to different tribes, races, or nationalities and they may even speak different languages.
-it is multinational. islam teaches that the umma, or community, is multinational. belongs to different people, languages, etc.
-is not defined territorially. because islam teaches that it aims/aspires to become a universal state.
-i.e. not defined territorially.
-is not a utopia or imaginary state.
-for the state to be complete, it has to become universal (i.e. it has to expand).
-why arabs right after islam in 7th century began expanding.
-why turks (who weren’t even muslim) came from central asia, landed in anatolia (modern turkey) and adopted islam. immediately after adoption, declared themselves to be a community/state.
-this is a difficult concept to appreciate. |
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Term
| party systems in islamic state |
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Definition
stress that there is only one party: the party of god (“hezbollah”)
-islam teaches that a multi-party system in the islamic state is offensive to the sharia. |
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