Antecedents, Behaviors, Consequences, Person Variables, Assets (ABCPA)

The primary way in which behariorists assess a patient’s problems, this form of analysis is also known as “Applied Behavioral Analysis”. 

The Behavior (B)is explicitly identified and defined measurably, the circumstances that precede the behavior (A) are considered (antecedents–time of day, social contexts, etc.), and the consequences (C) of the behavior of the behavior ar ealso taken into account (reinforcing consequences). 

The client’s person variables (P) are also assessed, things such as how they encode events, how they feel about the events, and what kind of self-talk they use.

Unlike some other approaches, this assessment technique takes into account the client’s assets (A), or the things that they do well.

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Attachment Patterns/Styles

In the context of personality and developmental psychology, attachment patterns/styles refers to a model that attempts to describe the dynamics of interpersonal relationships, believed to be highly influenced by the child/caregiver relationship in childhood.

This refers to how human beings respond within relationships when hurt, separated from loved ones, or perceiving a threat. 

Psychologist Mary Ainsworth devised an assessment called the Strange Situation Test.

Ainsworth identified three main attachment styles: Secure, Insecure Avoidant, and Insecure Ambivalent/Resistant.

Further research pointed to a fourth attachment style: Disorganized (not by Ainsworth).

Securely attached children feel confident that the attachment figure will be available to meet their needs. 

Insecure avoidant children are very independent of the attachment figure both physically and emotionally.

Insecure ambivalent/resistant children will commonly exhibit clingy and dependent behavior, but will be rejecting of the attachment figure when they engage in interaction. The child fails to develop any feelings of security from the attachment figure. Disorganized attachments are most common in the event of childhood abuse. Because sometimes they took care of you, and sometimes they hurt you, the child is unable to develop a consistent way of dealing with them.

The attachment styles formed in childhood are thought to influence those carried out into adulthood, such as in romantic relationships. Adult attachment styles have been defined as: Secure (tend to have positive views of themselves and their attachments); Anxious–preoccupied (seek high levels of intimacy, approval, and responsiveness from their attachment figure, may become overly dependent); Dismissive–avoidant (view themselves as self-sufficient and often deny needing close relationships); Fearful–avoidant (on the one hand, they desire to have emotionally close relationships and on the other hand, they tend to feel uncomfortable with emotional closeness).

Ex: (insecure attachment & validation of importance in therapy)

Authentic Existence

A term used in existential theory and therapy to describe a person who is taking responsibility for their life and for the freedoms they have, and who has an accurate understanding of themselves and the world around them.

Individuals who do not take responsibility for their lives and who do not have an accurate understanding of themselves are leading inauthentic lives.

Helping the client develop an authentic existence is the goal of existential therapy.

Authentic individuals, live morally, exercise free will, and constantly strive for growth.

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Big Five Personality Model/Traits

A personality theory developed recently by McCrae and Costa and based on work by Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck, this personality theory is based on the idea that all personality can be explained by five main traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

These five traits were identified using factor analysis. The traits are believed to be relatively stable over time and have been identified in many diverse cultures.

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Client-centered/Person-centered Theory/Therapy

Developed by Carl Rogers and based on his theory of personality, which asserts that humans have a natural tendency towards growth and change and that it is the negative influences from the environment that disrupt this tendency.

In person-centered therapy, the therapist offers the client unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness, as well as a role model for congruence between the real and ideal self.

Using nondirective techniques such as reflecting feelings and summarizing, the counselor and the client explore the client’s sense of identity, and eventually the client’s actualizing tendency comes to the surface.

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Cognitive Avoidance

Similar to avoidance behaviors in operant learning, cognitive avoidance occurs when individuals avoid thoughts that are distressing or upsetting to them. 

They are negatively reinforced for this avoidance by the relief they experience when they are not thinking about the upsetting thoughts.

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Cognitive Therapy 

Developed by Aaron Beck, this therapy focuses on challenging individuals’ maladaptive cognitions. According to Beck, the problem is that people have automatic thoughts (i.e., I am a failure because I didn’t do well on that test) which they take as a fact.

His goal in this therapy is to teach individuals that these automatic thoughts should be treated as hypotheses rather than as facts–you must find evidence to support them to see if they are actually true.

In contrast to Ellis’ confrontational approach, Beck uses Socratic questioning to help the client reach conclusions on their own.

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Cognitive Dissonance

An uncomfortable feeling of psychological tension that comes when one holds two conflicting views or beliefs simultaneously. 

The theory, developed by Leon Festinger, behind cognitive dissonance is that individuals have an innate drive to reduce dissonance, which can be accomplished through changing one’s beliefs and actions, or by justifying and denying one set of beliefs or actions. 

Cognitive dissonance is used in motivational interviewing in an attempt to show a client that their actions and their values are inconsistent with one another.

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Common Factors in Psychotherapy

In the context of clinical practice, common factors in psychotherapy refers to: a theory guiding some research in clinical psychology and counseling psychology, which proposes that different approaches and evidence-based practices in psychotherapy and counseling share common factors that account for much of the effectiveness of a psychological treatment; there are believed to be common factors that make psychotherapy effective, common to multiple techniques.

Some common factors include: a healthy setting, an emotionally charged, confiding relationship (therapeutic alliance), a rationale that provides an explanation for the clients symptoms and suggests how to cure them, a ritual that requires the active participant of both client and therapist, the therapist’s personality (should be charismatic and good at thinking on his/her feet; should promote/inspire change), and social reconditioning (change in the client that allows him/her to function effectively in the real world).

Common factors is one route by which therapists are attempting to integrate psychotherapies.

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Conditional vs. Unconditional Positive Regard 

Terms developed by Carl Rogers, to describe whether support and acceptance for an individual are given without conditions or with conditions. 

Every individual needs unconditional positive regard in order to develop unconditional self-regard, in which they accept themselves for who they are.

If they are given conditional positive regard, they will acquire conditions of worth and reject parts of themselves in order to be considered acceptable.

Unconditional positive regard is a core condition necessary for a therapeutic relationship.

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Conditions of Worth

Terms coined by Carl Rogers, this refers to messages sent from society or significant persons in an individual’s life that tell them they are only lovable or acceptable when they conform to certain guidelines.

When conditions of worth are placed on a person, they will deny parts of their self-concept in order to meet these conditions. This leads to incongruence between the real and ideal self and ultimately to pathology.

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Countertransference 

Originally proposed by Freud, this is a process that occurs in therapy when the therapist projects their past feelings or attitudes about something in their life onto the client, thereby distorting the way they perceive and react to the client. 

Not all countertransference is bad; however, the therapist must work to remain aware of any countertransference, as being unaware of it can be dangerous.

Ex: Therapist is seeing a patient who is depressed following a miscarriage–therapist herself also had a miscarriage. The therapist expressed much more empathy than she usually did, and recognized it as countertransference. While keeping an eye on her reactions, she allowed her personal experience to help her with her client.

Defense Mechanisms

Originally coined in psychoanalytic theory, largely by Anna Freud, this refers to an unconscious process by which a person attempts to preserve the integrity of their self-image and keep their ego from experiencing anxiety by distorting reality.

This anxiety is a result of conflicts between the Id and the Superego, which the Ego must mediate between.

While such mechanisms may be helpful in the short term, alleviating suffering that might otherwise incapacitate the individual, they can easily become a substitute for addressing the underlying cause and so lead to additional problems.

Freudian psychology states that normal, healthy individuals do use defense mechanisms, which only become unhealthy when they lead maladaptive behaviors.

1. Repression (direct one's own desires and impulses toward pleasurable instincts by excluding the desire–feeling is hidden and forced from the consciousness to the unconscious. Plays major role in many mental illnesses, and in psyche of average person), 2. Regression (falling back into an early state of mental/physical development seen as “less demanding and safer”), 3. Reaction formation (acting the opposite way that the unconscious instructs a person to behave, often exaggerated and obsessive*), 4. Fantasy (a way to escape real problems. Imagining that one is successful may lead to feelings of success, especially when one's reality is the opposite of success;  Imagining the worst consequences may lead to fear, or reliving a bad situation may lead to anger and depression), 5. Undoing (tries to 'undo' an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought or action by engaging in contrary behavior, like being nice after wanting to be rude), 6. Projection (defend themselves against their own unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to others), 7. Intellectualization (a defense mechanism which involves mental concentration in order to distance oneself from anxiety-provoking emotions associated with such situations), 8. Denial (may deny the reality of the unpleasant fact altogether - simple denial, admit the fact but deny its seriousness -minimization, or admit both the fact and seriousness but deny responsibility -transference) 9. Rationalization (rationalization is making excuses for one's mistakes, and by doing so avoiding self-condemnation or condemnation by others) 10. Sublimation/Displacement (seen as the most acceptable of the mechanisms, an expression of anxiety in socially acceptable ways, like yelling at wife after bad day with boss).

Ex: Brian presented to treatment because his wife insisted he go to therapy or they would get a divorce. She says that he has anger problems. The therapist discovered that much of Brian’s anger was actually at his boss, but that the defense mechanism of displacement caused him to take out his anger on a safer target, his wife.

*For example, if a wife is infatuated with a man who is not her husband, reaction formation may cause her to – rather than cheat – become obsessed with showing her husband signs of love and affection.

Eclecticism

An approach to therapy in which techniques from several different approaches are used, instead of limiting oneself to techniques from one particular theory or therapy.

Theoretical eclecticism is not workable, as, for instance, you cannot believe that a behavior is caused by both learning phenomenon and an Oedipus complex.

However, technical eclecticism in which techniques from various theories is used is workable.

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Emotion-Focused Therapy

In the context of therapeutic methods and humanistic theory, emotion-focused therapy is usually a short-term (8–20 sessions) structured psychotherapy approach to working with individuals, couples, or families. 

This method is designed to help people accept, express, regulate, make sense of and transform emotion.

Focuses on the development of emotional intelligence and on the importance of secure relationships.

EFT assumes that emotions can be a source of healing. Unlike most other therapies, EFT works with specific emotions to increase adaptation.

Seeks to resolve unpleasant emotions by working with them; EFT regards many unpleasant emotions as sources of useful information.

It includes elements of Gestalt therapy, person-centered therapy, constructivist therapy, systemic therapy, and attachment theory.

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Existential Theory/Therapy

Like humanists, existentialists in the world of psychology felt that behaviorism and psychoanalysis is focused on a narrow aspect of human’s nature, and that a broader view was needed.

Unlike humanists, existential theorists do not believe that humans are naturally inclined to live constructively, but rather that they are faced with a choice to either take responsibility for their existence or shirk that responsibility. 

Those who take responsibility for their lives and have an accurate awareness of themselves are leading an authentic existence. 

Existential therapy encourages clients to accept responsibility for their lives and to live with greater meaning and values. 

Focus on free will, present/future, and being responsible.

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Factor Analysis

A statistical procedure in which groupings/patterns are identified from a correlation matrix (a mathematical procedure for reducing a set of intercorrelations to a small number of descriptive explanatory concepts). 

This procedure is used to determine whether the variability among observed variables may be explained by fewer unobserved variables called factors. 

Factor analysis was used to come up with the five factors of the Big Five personality theory.

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Fixation

In the context of psychoanalytic theory, fixation is a concept originated by Freud to denote the persistence of unresolved conflict or emotional hang-ups caused by overindulgence or by frustration in one or more of the psychosexual stages of development.

Freud believed that many adult personality traits can be attributed to fixations.

Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.

The term subsequently came to denote object relationships with and attachments to people or things in general persisting from childhood into adult life.

Ex: (i.e., oral fixation & smoking, nail-biting; 

Gestalt Therapy

Developed by Fritz Pearls, this is a humanistic/existential therapy which focuses on the present and how we perceive ourselves in the context of others.

Counselors help their clients move towards self-recognition and self-acceptance by using techniques such as role-playing and self-discovery exercises.

Gestalt therapists often try to achieve their objectives by deliberately challenging and frustrating their clients.

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Humanistic Therapy

A group of therapies that developed in reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

Humanistic therapists felt that psychoanalysis was negative and deterministic, while behaviorism used too much technical jargon and ignored the uniqueness of the human condition. 

Humanistic therapies, in contrast, focus on human potential, growth, and a person’s ability to actively shape their own future, believing that humans have a natural tendency towards self-actualization.

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Insight/Catharsis

Insight is a mental process which refers to a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Catharsis is defined as emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

In therapy settings, catharsis is more than just venting anger. Instead, it's a re-experiencing of a traumatic event and expressing the strong emotions that are associated with them. 

Therapies that emphasize emotions, such as Gestalt therapy, create role-play simulations to facilitate safe expression of emotions.

The release of these emotions is thought to create further insights into the issue.

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Internal Frame of Reference (IFR)

In the context of personality theory, internal frame of reference (IFR) refers to an individual’s subjective reality, or their phenomenological field–the context according to which a person lives his or her life.

For empathic understanding, or better understanding the client’s point of view, the therapist attempts to see the client from the client's internal frame of reference. 

In addition, the client experiences that she or he is being perceived accurately by the therapist when they are being empathic.

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Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT)

In the context of treatment techniques, interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a brief, attachment-focused psychotherapy that centers on resolving interpersonal problems and symptomatic recovery, with elements of both CBT and social theory.

It is an empirically supported treatment (EST) that follows a highly structured approach, intended to be completed within 12–16 weeks. 

IPT, first developed in the 70s for treatment of depression, is based on the principle that relationships and life events impact mood and that the reverse is also true.

Along with CBT, IPT is a recommended psychosocial treatment for depression.

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Interpretation

In the context of personality theory, interpretation is the third and final stage of the perception process. 

This stage is characterized by our representation and understanding of stimuli in our environment, in which individuals most directly display their subjective views of the world around them.

Interpretation of stimuli is subjective, which means that individuals can come to different conclusions about the same stimuli.

Subjective interpretation of stimuli is affected by individual values, needs, beliefs, prior experiences, expectations, self-concept, and other personal factors.

Ex: (If I believe myself to be an attractive person, I might interpret stares from strangers (stimulus) as admiration (interpretation).

Person-Behavior-Environment Reciprocal Interaction

A theory developed by Bandura that states that an individual’s behavior influences and is influenced by their environment and personal factors.

All three factors interact with each other. If a person with certain personal factors/traits is in a certain situation/environment, then this certain behavior is manifested.

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Person-Situation Debate

This is a debate between personality theorists as to whether traits are consistent across situations (the person side) or vary according to the situation (the situation side).

Generally, traits are superior in predicting general behavior patterns, while situations are predictive of how they will behave in that situation in the future.

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Person Variables

Developed by Mischel, these are variables which mediate between stimuli (the environment0 and a person’s responses, in the way that personality may do in other theories. 

Every person has unique peson variablees, which include encodings, competencies and plans, emotions, expectancies, goals and values, and evaluative standards.

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Psychodynamic Theory

A branch of theory of personality pioneered by Freud and also including Jung, Adler, and Erikson, this theory revolves around the idea that behavior is largely motivated by the unconscious and that biological influences are much stronger in developing a person’s personality than environmental influences.

Early experiences are believed to extensively shape development. Many psychodynamic theorists postulate the existence of different parts of the self that conflict with each other and lead to anxiety and neuroses (according to Freud, the id, ego, and superego).

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Psychosexual Stages

Part of psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud, in which a stage is defined by what erogenous zone the libidinal energy is currently residing in, and the progression through these stages is considered to be an innate and normal part of development.

In the first stage, oral, the erogenous zone is the mouth and the id is dominant, working towards immediate gratification of all its pleasure needs.

In the second stage, anal, the erogenous zone is the anus, and the ego begins developing and taking control of the id. 

The phallic stage is marked by the erogenous zone of the genitals, and the superego develops as a result of identification with the same-sex parent.

After this, the individual goes through a latency stage, and then sexually matures when they hit adolescence and the genital stage.

Freud believed that fixation at any stage would result in pathology.

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Psychosocial Stages

Theory of personality developed by Erik Erikson, who believed that Freud put too much emphasis on sexuality and, in contrast to Freud, focused his theory on social interactions, stemming from his belief that a desire to be with other people is a person’s primary drive.

Erikson also believed that development continued throughout an individual’s life, and his eight developmental stages (which reach through later adulthood) reflect this belief.

In each stage, the person must work through dissonant ideas** (trust/mistrust, autonomy/shame and doubt, initiative/guilt, industry/inferiority, identity/role confusion, intimacy/isolation, generativity/stagnation, and integrity/despair).

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Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

A cognitive behavioral therapy put forth by Albert Ellis, the major tenet of which is that distress is not created by events but by judgements and beliefs about those events. 

Ellis believes that humans have a strong tendency to think irrationally, which leads to psychological stress. 

However, he also believes that humans have the power to alter their thinking, and the confrontational nature of this therapy is designed to get clients to think about their thinking. 

The counselor disputes a client’s irrational shoulds, oughts, and musts.

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Resistance

A concept coined by Freud, psychological resistance is the phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly oppose changing their behavior or refuse to discuss, remember, or think about presumably clinically relevant experiences.

Examples of the expression of resistance are canceling or rescheduling appointments, avoiding consideration of identified themes, forgetting to complete homework assignments and the like. This will make it more difficult for the therapist to work with the client, but it will also provide him with information about the client.

Addressing the client’s resistance can allow the client to think about and discuss their resistance and the cognitive processes that underlie it, offering the client the opportunity to become more active in their own treatment.

Ex: (For example, a very directive client can make the therapist feel very passive. When the therapist pays attention to their passive feelings, it can make him/her understand this behavior of the client as resistance coming from fear of losing control.)

Rogerian Theory/Therapy

A client-centered therapy developed by Carl Rogers, who believed that individuals are innately good and have a tendency towards positive change and growth.

This tendency can be thwarted by negative environmental influences, such as conditions of worth placed on the individual.

Society places conditions of worth on an individual, leading to them only valuing themselves if they can do certain things.

Therapy is designed to be non directive and help a person become fully functioning, valuing all parts of their selves and their experiences.

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Schema

Refers to a person’s mental representation of some aspect of their environment, including its qualities and the relationships between it and other things.

The term schema is used in Piaget’s developmental theory to describe the basic units in the brain used for organizing information.

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Secondary Processes and the Reality Principle

In Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, The reality principle is what leads us to weigh the potential risks and rewards of a particular action and secondary processes intervene as a system of control and regulation in the service of the reality principle. 

The reality principle strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. 

The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon an impulse, and the need to delay gratification when appropriate.

Delays in reward are accomplished through secondary processes, which discharge the tension between the ego and the id that is caused by unmet urges and needs.

Ex: (A person who lives as a slave to their immediate desires and consistently feels regret and guilt afterwards will lead an unhappy and persistently unfulfilled existence. It is not hard to find examples of adults who live this way, such as the alcoholic who drinks then feels guilty for doing so and they go on to perpetuate the vicious cycle.)

Self-Actualization

In the context of humanistic personality theory, self-actualization refers to the full realization of one's potential, and of one's true self.

As Abraham Maslow noted, the basic needs of humans must be met (e.g. food, shelter, warmth, security, sense of belonging) before a person can achieve self-actualization – the need to be good, to be fully alive and to find meaning in life. Yet, Maslow argued that reaching a state of true self-actualization in everyday society was fairly rare (~1%).

Necessary attitudes and/or attributes that need to be inside an individual as a pre-requisite for self-actualization include: a real wish to be themselves, to be fully human, to fulfill themselves, to be completely alive, as well as to risk being vulnerable, and uncovering more 'painful' aspects in order to learn about/grow through and integrate these parts of themselves (which has parallels with Jung’s slightly similar concept of individuation).

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Self-Concept

In the context of Rogerian personality theory, self-concept refers to how someone thinks about, evaluates or perceives themselves (their behavior, abilities, and unique characteristics)–the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.

It is a cognitive or descriptive component of one's self and answers, “Who am I?”.

A collection of self-schemas, ideas of oneself in a particular dimension, make up one's overall self-concept, which is more malleable in earlier life, and more set as we age.

A person's self-concept may change with time as reassessment occurs, which in extreme cases can lead to identity crises.

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Self-Efficacy

An important concept in Bandura’s social learning theory, self-efficacy is one’s beliefs in one’s ability to succeed at certain tasks or in certain situations. 

Self-efficacy influences how people approach situations–if they do not believe they can succeed, they are less likely to attempt a task or to place themselves in a situation.

The most effective way of instilling a sense of self-efficacy is successful real-life practice.

Ex: After sustaining a moderate head injury in a car accident and learning she has acquired deficits in memory and attention, Emily is unsure of her ability to continue her studies, as planned and shares this in therapy. Her therapist helps her with self-efficacy by testing her memory and attention and showing her the improvements she has made. The therapist then encourages Emily to pursue a night class, of some kind, so she might see the changes in the real-life scenario she is concerned about.

Self-Monitoring

A type of observation in which a client monitors their own behaviors, thoughts, or feelings. It is useful for low-frequency behaviors or private events.

Self-monitoring, like direct observation, is subject to reactivity of monitoring–a person may decrease an undesired behavior unconsciously when they start monitoring that behavior.

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Sustain vs. Change Talk

In the context of the technique of motivational interviewing in clinical practice, the counselor listens for and evokes the client’s reasons for concern and arguments for change (change talk), while also accepting and reflecting perceived disadvantages of change (sustain talk).

Change Talk refers to the client’s mention and discussion of his or her Desire, Ability, Reason, and Need to change behavior and Commitment to changing (having the client voice reasons for change).

Sustain talk refers to the client’s stated reasons not to make a change, or to sustain the

status quo. 

Sustain talk is noted to counter change talk, but it is not client’ resistance. 

One is cautioned in general not to elicit and thereby risk reinforcing sustain talk and to shift the focus to change talk, if possible, when sustain talk emerges.

The objective is to facilitate high levels of change talk and low levels of sustain talk.

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Trait Theory

Trait theory is a personality theory that conceptualizes personality as a set of traits, or enduring dispositions to respond in a particular manner. 

Traits are thought to be relatively stable over time and consistent across situations; they are generally measured with psychological tests.

One disadvantage of trait theory is that it ignores the situation as the source of control over a person’s behavior.

Early trait theorists include Allport, Cattell, and Esenck.

Ex: A therapist is seeing a client involved in a federal court case, in which the client is subject to personality testing by the defense’s psychologist. The client was told to answer questions as if in the present moment, rather than generalizing over her lifetime. The client is frustrated when she feels certain responses were taken out of context, such as asking about her level of trust in others, and this being held as something she has always struggled with, when this was a trait that appeared in the context of those in authority not having her best interests at heart.

Transference

First postulated by Freud, this is a process in therapy in which the client projects onto the therapist past feelings or attitudes that they have had towards significant people or things in their lives. 

If the client is reacting to the therapist in a  way that seems odd or inconsistent with the situation, transference may be occurring. Therapists should not react to the transference emotions, but instead collaborate with the client to determine the origin of the feelings.

Ex: A client comes to therapy, on her physician’s recommendation, as she has been dealing with debilitating depression following the loss of a loved one. He believes he is bothering the therapist with his problems and does not want to talk about them, saying he’s sorry and does not know that he needs to be there. The therapist picks up on the transference here, as the client had shared in their first meeting that the family member who died said he was a burden on the family and works through this with the client.

Warmth, Empathy, Genuineness (WEG)

In the context of Rogerian therapeutic practice–a part of Person-centered therapy–warmth, empathy, and genuineness refer to traits of the clinician that are core conditions needed for an effective therapeutic relationship.

Warmth is when the counselor creates feeling of unconditional positive regard, non-judgmental caring, and acceptance of the client’s emotions and problems.

Empathy is when the counselor creates feelings of understanding for the client. The counselor tries to have accurate and sensitive entry into the clients IFR. (This is like thinking with the client, not for the client.)

Genuineness is when the counselor creates feelings of congruence and transparency with the client. (This can be done by eliminating professional jargon and superior attitudes as a counselor.)

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