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| the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that are organized and relatively enduring. They influence his or her interactions with and adaptations to the environment (including the intrapsychic, physical and social environments. |
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| Traits are subpoints that make up personality. Personality is the set of traits. |
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| States are transient, and traits are permanent. |
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| Three levels of personality analysis |
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Human nature
Individual and group differences
Individual uniqueness. |
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How we are like all others
Traits and mechanisms of personality that are typical of our species, and possessed by nearly everyone. |
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| Individual and Group Differences |
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How we are like SOME others
Refers to ways which each person is like some others.
Refers to the ways in which people of one group differ from people of another. |
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How we are like NO others.
Every individual has personal and unique qualities not shared by any other person in the world. |
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statistical comparisons of groups of individuals.
Wilhelm Wundt: Variable centered, individual differences, research settings |
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| Idiographic human studies |
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single-human focus, case studies, or psychological biography. Analyzing people in terms of the sequence of events in their lives, trying to understand critical life events within their own histories.
Sigmund Freud: Person centered, intrapersonal functioning, clinical settings |
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| Grand Theories of Personality Psychology |
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Definition
Attempt to provide universal accounts of the fundamental psychological processes and characteristics of our species.
Statements about the universal core of human nature lie at the center of grand theories, like psychoanalytic theories (Freud) |
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Most current personality research addresses ways in which individuals and groups differ, not human universals.
Eg: neuroticism, extraversion, introversion, self-monitoring, locus of control narcissism, etc.
Occurs across 6 domains of knowledge |
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Intrapsychic
Cognitive Experiential
Biological
Social/ Cultural
Dispositional
Adjustment |
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Deals with the ways that individuals differ from one another. Cuts across all dimensions.
-Interest in the number and nature of fundamental dispositions.
-Identify and measure the most important ways in which individuals differ from one another. |
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humans are collections of biological systems, and these systems provide building blocks for behavior, thought and emotion.
Genetics, psychophysiology, evolution
-Genetics of personality
-Psychophysiology of personality, what is known about personality based on nervous system functioning. Links b/n hormones and personality.
- How did evolution effect psychological functioning? |
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| Deals with mental mechanisms of personality, many of which operate outside of conscious awareness. |
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| Cognitive Experiential Domain |
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cognition and subjective experience, such as conscious thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and desires about oneself and others
- differ in form and content b/n people.
- Self and self-concept
- Approaching personality through the personal projects or tasks that individuals are trying to accomplish in their daily lives. |
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assumption that personality is not something that merely resides within the heads, nervous systems and genes of individuals.
- Affects and is affected by the social and cultural context. |
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refers to the fact that personality plays a role in how we cope, adapt, and adjust to the ebb and flow of events day-to-day.
- Personality is linked to health outcomes (eg: heart disease) |
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| tested by systematic observations that can be repeated by others and that yield similar conclusions. |
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| personally useful and important to individuals, but are not based on reliable facts and systematic observations. |
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| Standards for evaluating personality theories |
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Definition
comprehensiveness: does the theory do a good job of explaining all of the facts and observations within the domain?
heuristic value: does it provide a good guide to important new discoveries?
testability
parsimony: does it avoid premises and assumptions?
compatibility and integration across domains and levels? |
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| Psychoanalysis: Why is it important? |
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Definition
Continuing influence on modern psychtherapy
Continuing influence on research topics
Influence on pop culture
Laid the foundations for other topics and questions that psychologists today are still interested in. |
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| Basic Instincts of Psychoanalysis |
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Definition
Sex and Aggression:
Instincts: strong innate forces that provide all the energy in the psychic system
Influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution.
-In later formations, Freud combined self-preservation and sexual instincts into one
- Life instinct (eros) and death instinct (thanatos) |
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| Thoughts, feelings and images about which you are presently aware. |
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| contains information you are not presently thinking about, but can be easily retrieved and made conscious |
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information that you do not know that you have, and cannot be easily retrieved.
- Material can take on a life of its own.
Motivated unconsciousness: material can leak into feelings, thoughts and behavior
- Includes unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges, thoughts and feelings |
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| Manifest content vs. Latent content |
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Definition
Manifest Content: in dream analysis, what is actually occurring in the dream
Latent Content: in dream analysis, what the content of the dream actually represents. |
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| Structure of Personality; 3 parts of the mind |
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Definition
Creates the unacceptable urges (ID)
Recognizes what society expects, conscience, recognizing and following morals (super ego)
Satisfies the urges within the boundaries of reality and society (ego) |
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control of the ego is being threatened by reality
- State signals that things are not right in the mind.
objective anxiety: response to real, external threats to a person
Neurotic Anxiety: direct conflicts b/n ego and id. |
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| Repression, denial, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, projection, sublimination |
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| Process of preventing unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or urges from reaching conscious awareness. |
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When the reality of an extreme situation is anxiety provoking, a personal may deny its happening.
Insistence that things are not the way they seem.
Reappraising an anxiety provoking situation so that it seems less daunting.
Often shows up in people's daydreams. |
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Definition
| unconscious defense mechanism that involves avoiding the recognition that one has certain inappropriate urges or unacceptable feelings (anger, sexual attraction) toward a specific other) Those feelings then get displaced on another person or object that is more appropriate or acceptable (yelling at the dog, not the boss) |
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| Sometimes we see in others those traits that we find the most upsetting in ourselves; we project our own unacceptable qualities onto others (I'm no cheater, he is) |
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| involves generating acceptable reasons for outcomes that might otherwise be unacceptable; goal is to reduce anxiety by coming up with an explanation for some event that is easier to accept than the real reason. |
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| an attempt to stifle the expression of an unacceptable urge, a person may continually display a flurry of behavior that indicates the opposite behavior. Someitmes people will do the exact opposite of what you predict. Excessive behavior. |
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| Channeling of unacceptable sexual or aggressive instincts into socially desired activities (football; aggression) |
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| Psychosexual Stages of Development |
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Definition
| At each of the stages, children must face and resolve individual conflicts, revolving around ways of obtaining gratification |
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Definition
Mouth, lips and tongues are the targets.
Key conflicts are weaning, withdrawing from breast, bottle.
Overindulgence: on the bottle too long
Underindulgence: not on the bottle long enough. |
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Definition
| Key conflict, toilet training, conflicts arise around the child's ability to exert self control |
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Child discovers that she/he has or does not have a penis
Sexual desire directed toward the parent of the opposite sex.
Oedipus and Electra complexes.
unconscious wish to have the opposite sex parent all to oneself, eliminating the same-sex parent.
Penis envy: blames mother for lack of penis, wants father b/c he has one. (means that women never develop the superego because they never resolve the Electra complex)
Not resolving the O or E complex= homosexuality, promiscuity.
Castration anxiety: leads to giving up the desire for the mother. |
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Term
| Fourth Stage: Latency Stage |
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Definition
- Boys are icky stage
- Little psychological development occurs
Focus is on learning skills and abilities to necessarily succeed as an adult.
same sex relationships |
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Term
| Fifth Stage: Genital stage (puberty and adulthood) |
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Definition
Libido is focused on genitalia, but not in the manner of self-manipulation associated with the phallic stage.
Not accompanied by a specific conflict.
People reach this stage only if conflicts are resolved at all previous stages. |
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| Psychoanalysis, Psychometrics |
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Definition
Method of deliberately restructuring personality
Goals: make the unconscious, conscious
identify unconscious thoughts/feelings
once patient is aware, enable them to deal reasonable and maturely. |
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Definition
Free association
Dream analysis
Projective techniques (rorschach test)
DOES NOT inform much current personality research
Freud did not believe in the value of experimentation, and only relied on wealthy women to generate his theories of human personality. |
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Definition
individuals can report not being able to recall stimuli presented to them, yet show superior recall of this information over stimuli not previously presented.
- Classical conditioning
- Korsakoff Syndrome: long term alcohol use: memory loss, no memory, but the information is there.
HM: temporal lobes, removed, could not form new explicit memories. |
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| Implicit Perception, Implicit Thought |
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Definition
| perception without awareness, problem solving minus awareness. |
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| clear that individuals can respond emotionally without awareness. |
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Definition
Internal state that arouses and directs behavior, a specific object or goal.
Caused by a deficit, or a lack of something. If you had everything, would you seek anything at all?
Part of the intraspychic domain, bc they often operate outside conscious awareness, and are often studied using projective techniques |
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Definition
Henry Murray
2 sources of motives: Needs and Presses
- Needs: readiness to respond in a certain way under certain situation.
- process of reducing tension that is satisfying and not the tensionless state per se.
- Proposed a list of fundamental human needs
Each need= specific desire or intention
- Each person has a unique hierarchy of needs.
Individuals needs can be thought of as existing at a different level of strength.
Needs interact with other needs.
Elements in the environment effect a person's needs.
2 categories of needs:
- primary (viscerogenic/biological)
secondary (psychological)
- Presses: something in the environment that stimulates a need (alpha= object reality, beta= perceived reality) |
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Term
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Definition
Henry Murray
2 sources of motives: Needs and Presses
- Needs: readiness to respond in a certain way under certain situation.
- process of reducing tension that is satisfying and not the tensionless state per se.
- Proposed a list of fundamental human needs
Each need= specific desire or intention
- Each person has a unique hierarchy of needs.
Individuals needs can be thought of as existing at a different level of strength.
Needs interact with other needs.
Elements in the environment effect a person's needs.
2 categories of needs:
- primary (viscerogenic/biological)
secondary (psychological)
- Presses: something in the environment that stimulates a need (alpha= object reality, beta= perceived reality) |
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| Thematic Apperception Test |
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Definition
TAT: Ambiguous pictures presented to a participant for interpretation
-presumption that a person projects current needs into the interpretation of a picture.
-make up a story about whats going on in the scene.
- NOT correlated to questionnaires. |
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Definition
desire to do things well, to feel pleasure in overcoming obstacles
- enjoyment in the process of achievement
- satisfaction from accomplishing something
- is reflected in TAT responses that mention goals or obstacles to goal attainment, positive feelings about success or negative feelings about failure or performing well at something.
- Enjoy tasks where they are personally responsible for the outcome
- Greater persistence in the face of failure
- Better task performance
- High grades.
- Linked to lower effectiveness among presidents.
- Women's goals tend to be more social than professional, but there are not differences between male/female LEVELs of achievement. |
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Definition
Readiness or preference for having an impact on people
- Those with a high need for power are interested in controlling both people and situations.
- Seek out positions of authority and influence.
- Surround themselves with symbols of power and dominance.
- Students high in power are more likely to be argumentative, put their names on their form doors, use fancy school supplies.
- Relationship to presidential effectiveness: power motive positively associated with high effectiveness.
- unique persistence toward desired outcomes.
- Strong narcissistic streak, almost ASPD |
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Definition
Need to spend time with others.
- Indicate more contact
- Spend more time engaged in social activities
- More likely to report loneliness.
- Likely to be nominated for group leadership |
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Definition
desire to experience warm, close, communicative interactions with others
- Spend more time thinking about relationships
- Report more pleasant emotions when around others
- Higher in women
- Smile, laugh, make more eye contact
- Start frequent conversations
- Write more letters
- More one on one exchanges. |
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Desire to perform a behavior in order to obtain some reward or benefit
- exerting only minimal effort to complete the task, stress and anxiety prone, lower satisfaction with academics
- Performance goals trying to achieve the baseline. |
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Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
- positively related to achievement
- Better grades
- more attentive
- ACtively participate in class discussion
MASTERY GOALS: trying to become an expert regardless of requirements |
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Definition
Motive to self-actualize
- Emphasis on the conscious awareness of needs and choice and personal responsibility
- Approach is a counter-response to psychoanalytic and behavioral traditions both of which are held that people have little free will in determining their actions
- Focus on personal responsibility
- People are good, and human nature is positive, society ruins us.
- fulfilling one's natural potential, and letting people grow and develop naturally
- Focus on growth instead of deficiency |
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| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |
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Definition
Lower needs must be satisfied before we can proceed to higher needs
- Hierarchy emerges during development with lower needs emerging earlier in life.
- Physiological: food, warmth, shelter
- Safety: security, free from danger
- Belongingness: Acceptance by others.
- Esteem: Prestige/ feelings of accomplishment
Self- Actualization: Achieving full potential, including creative activities. |
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Definition
Focus on ways to foster and attain self-actualization, fully functioning people: enroute to self-actualization
- All children are born with a aneed for positive regard.
- Many parents place conditions of worth on children, on when they will receive positive regard
- Key to development of unconditional positive regard and moving toward self-actualization is the receipt of unconditional positive regard from parents and significant others.
- Anxiety results when people get off track in their pursuit of self-actualization |
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Definition
designed to get a personon path toward self-actualization
3 goals:
1. Genuine acceptance of the client by the therapist
2. Therapist must express unconditional positive regard for the patient; not condoning behavior
3. Empathetic understanding: client must feel that the therapist understands him/her. |
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