An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division

Type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each with half the chromosome number of the parent cell. Cell division of sex cells (aka gametes: spermatozoa and ova) 

type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each the same as the parent nucleus (contain same genetic material and number of chromosomes), typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Normal process by which a less specialized cell develops or matures to possess a more distinct form and function. ex: single celled zygote (fertilized female egg) to develop into a multicellular adult organism that can contain hundreds of different types of cells 

Cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the body. They serve as a repair system for the body. Two types: embryonic stem cells (derived from embryos) and adult stem cells (undifferentiated cells found throughout the body that divide to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues)

Carcinogenesis

Abnormal mass of tissue as a result of neoplasia. Neoplasia is the abnormal proliferation of cells.

of cells derived or cloned from one cell. Ex: cancer derives from a single, mutated cell

Mutator genes

genes that increase the rate of mutation of one or more other genes--also called mutator

Oncogenes

a mutated (changed) form of a gene involved in normal cell growth.Oncogenes may cause the growth of cancer cells

Tumor suppressor genes

genes that regulate the growth of cells. When these genes are functioning properly, they can prevent and inhibit the growth of tumors. Three types:

1. p-53 gene
• most common mutation that leads to cancer
• located on chromosome 17
• deleted or mutated in 3 or 4 types of colorectal cancer
• opposes cell division in response to cell dna damage by delaying cell develpoment
• cells are unresponsive to the need for repair without p-53
2. Rb gene
• can cause cancer of retina when mutated in a child
• follows dominant pattern
• inactivation can cause osteocarcoma, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, and lung cancers
3. Bcl-2 gene
• inhibits apoptosis
• if mutated and permanently activated, the cell with altered gene ignores all of normal triggers to die and becomes immortal 
• mutations first found in leukocytes and are known to lead to one form of leukemia

Protooncogenes

normal gene that has the potential to become an oncogene, three ways protooncogenes become oncogenes: 

1. Point Mutation- single alteration of a nucleotide (building-block of dna), either by deletion of nucleotide, insertion of extra nucleotide, or substitution of nucleotide for another.
2. Translocation - chromosomal segment changes from one location to another in the same or different chromosome
3. Gene Amplification - increase in numbers of copies of protooncogene 

Tamoxifen (Soltamox) blocks the actions of estrogen and is used to treat and prevent some types of breast cancer.

Initiation-Promotion-Progression theory

1. Initiation event - causes mutation in a cell
2. Promoting event - expansion of mutated cell's growth and reproduction
3. Progression event - extension of the promotion phase with one exception: now the cancerous growth is no longer dependent

Autonomy

unregulated, proliferation (cell growth) of the neoplasm

Anaplasia

the loss of cell differentiation and therefore the loss of cell function

formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones

disease or symptom that is the consequence of the presence of cancer in the body

Ectopic

occurring in an abnormal position or in an unusual manner or form

tumors that only grow in one place and are unable to spread or invade other parts of the body

Tumors where cells are capable of spreading and invading other tissues and parts of the body. This type of tumor is cancerous. 

the proliferation of neoplasm within the tissue of origin

• a process of tumor cells moving into adjacent tissues and organs
• defining characteristic of malignancy
• penetration of the basement membrance is the first step for epithelial tumors

A form of direct extension in which neoplastic proliferation occurs within peritoneal and plural cavities surrounding the affected tissue or organ.

Movement or spreading of cancer cells from one organ or tissue to another.

•  Cancer cells usually "metastasize" through blood or lymph systems.

a term used to describe the affinity of a primary tumor to a specific distant the site

• factors include:

1. a favorable environment offered by new tissue or organ
2. adherence molecule compatibility between the neoplasm and the new tissue or organ
3. the location of the organ in relation to the path of blood flow

Abnormal growth of the epithelium, which is the layer of tissue that covers the surfaces of organs and other structures of the body.

Papilloma

Small, benign epithelial tumor, such as a wart, consisting of an overgrowth of cells on a core of smooth connective tissue.

benign epithelial tumor occuring in glandular tissue and having a glandlike structure.

teratosteomas

tumors that arise from germ cells

chondromas

A benign tumor or tumor-like growth of mature hyaline cartilage

adenocarcinoma

Carcinoma (malignant growth of epithelial cells) derived from glandular tissue or in which the tumor cells form recognizable glandular structures.

Type of cancer that begins in the bone (primary bone cancer). Chondrosarcoma cells produce cartilage as they invade the bone

Cancer in the stage of development, where it has stayed in the place where it began and has not spread to neighboring tissues.

Staging and TNM classification system

Staging - A process of classifying the extent or spread of neoplasms and refers to the tumor size, location, lymph node involvement, and spread

TNM classification system:

• T - tumor size: indicates the presence and size of the primary tumor
• N - Node (lymph) involvement: indicates involvement of regional lymph nodes
• M - Metastasis: indicates the extent of metastasis

System used to classify cancer cells in terms of how abnormal they look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow and spread.The cells of Grade 1 tumors resemble normal cells (well-differentiated), and tend to grow and multiply slowly

The four stages are as follows:

Stage 1: Well-differentiated (Low grade)

Stage 2: Moderately differentiated (Intermediate grade)

Stage 3: Poorly differentiated (High grade)

Stage 4: Undifferentiated (High grade)

Syndrome of progressive weight loss, anorexia, and persistent erosion of host body cell mass in response to a malignant growth. happens as a result of altered nutritional intake and metabolism of important nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, etc.

Presenting signs of skin cancer (melanoma)

A - Asymmetry: mole that is irregularly shaped

B - Border: mole or spot with jagged edges without cleart boundaries

C - Color: mole that is more than one hue is suspicious, normal spots are more than one color

D - Diameter: sudden increase in mole size, esp. if greater then 6mm across (size of pencil eraser)

E - Elevation: flat mole that becomes elevated

1. Imaging studies: direct visualization of tumor masses (X-ray, ultrasound, Computed Tomography (CT), and MRI scans)
2. Biopsy and Cytology studies: tissue samples can be removed (biopsy) and the cells can be examined (cytology)
3. Tumor Markers: substances found in cells or body fluids can provide evidence of presence, extent, and treatment response of certain neoplasms

Substances found in cells or body fluids can provide evidence of presence, extent, and treatment response of certain neoplasms. Consist of:

1. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA): produced by cells in prostate, normally low in concentration but elevations may indicate abnormalities
2. CA 125: antigen-expressed tumor marker for ovarian cancer, may also be increased in uterine, cervical, pancreatic, lung, colon, breast, and gastrointestinal cancers
3. Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA): measurement primarily used to monitor colorectal cancer disease and treatment, wide variety of cancers can elevate levels including cancer of lungs, breasts, pancreas, stomach, cervix, bladder, kidney, thyroid, liver and ovary

• Occult - hidden blood in stool, if tumor or other abnormality is along ascending colon
• Frank - visible blood in stool, if tumor or other abnormality is along descending colon or in rectum

nose bleeds

Found in approximately 95% of those with CML (Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia) and represents a chromosme 9 and 22 translocation (switch of positions of chromosomal segments) which activates oncogenes

Malignant disorder of the lymphoid tissue often characterized by the painless, progressive enlargement of cervical (neck) lymph nodes

• unknown origin

Originates in the cell components of lymph nodes following a B-lymphocyte lineage; it is the neoplastic cell diagnostic for Hodgkins Lymphoma

Generic classification made up of a broad range of B-cell and T-cell malignancies within the immune system.

• occurs more frequently than HL
• does not exhibit the malignant Reed-Sternberg or Hodgkin cell
• more likely to affect noncontiguous (unconnected) lymph nodes
• unknown etiology, however viruses, immunodeficiency, and genetic factors are implicated