made up of phospholipids (phosphate [PO4-] bound to lipid)

The phosphate connected to the lipid structure is knon as the "head"

The lipid structure is known as the "tail"

Having affinity to water

(the heads)

lacking an affinity to water

(lipid tails composed largely of cholesterol)

• a complex network of tubules, producing proteins and fats
• important in the regulation of ions within the cell
• Types
• rough
• synthesis of proteins via bound ribosomes
• production of lysosomal enzymes (acid hydrolases)
• smooth
• synthesis of lipids, lipoproteins, and steroid hormones
• regulation of intracellular calcium

• Membranous structure
• prepares substances produced by the endoplasmic reticulum for secretion out of the cell

• small sacs surrounded by membrane
• digests cellular debris with hydrolytic enzymes
• important in the metabolism of particular substances

• membrane-enclosed sacs smaller than lysosomes
• contain enzymes called oxidases that neutralize oxygen free radicals (atoms carrying an unpaired electron and no charge)
• promote survival of the cell by neutralizing harmful substances potentially damagin to the cell

• large organelles that recognize abnormally folded or formed proteins
• involved in proteolysis (breakdown of protein)

• principal producer of cellular energy source, adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• contain the cytochrome enzymes of terminal electron transport necessary for the production of ATP
• contain enzymes needed for the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and oxidative phosphorylation

• individual units of inheritance located on the chromosomes containing DNA
• determine cell protein characteristics

• composed of tubule and filament structures that contribute to cell shape, movement, and intracellular transport
• the main cytoskeleton components include:
• microtubules
• thin protein structures composed of tubulin
• microfilaments
• thin
• comprise the protein actin
• intermediate
• comprise filaments with diameter size between thin and thick filaments
• thick
• comprise the protein myosin

• movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration (concentration gradient)
• example of passive transport

• one category of endocytosis
• the ATP-requiring process of ingestin cmall vesicles

• one category of endocytosis
• the process of ingesting larege particles such as cells, bacteria, and damaged cellular components, resulting in the release of oxygen free radicals
• critical in the defense of the body from foregin invaders

• the process of movement of granules or particles out of the cell
• fusion of the membrane surrounding the granule with the cell membrane, followed by rupture and release of contents

• molecules that bind to specific receptors
• involved in signal transduction

• mechanism of cellular communication
• initiated by binding of ligand to receptor and resulting in an action through subsequent communication events

• ligands involved in endocrine signaling
• can influence cell behavior on a larger scale

• refers to the changing of one cell type to another
• when the stressor that caused these cell changes is removed, cells often return to their normal state.
• in the presence of a persistent stressor, cells may develop changes that lead to pathologic changes

• refers to the actual change in cell size, shape, uniformity, arrangement, and sturcture
• often a cells's response to a chronic and persistent stressor and is likely to resolve when the stressot is removed
• caused by abnormal differentiation of dividing cells and is considered a problem in regulating cell growth
• can lead to mutations

• cellular suicide
• programmed cell death prompted by a genetic signal and is designed to replace old cells with new

1. Infection from bacteria, viruses, protozoa, or fungi
2. physical injury from mechanical, thermal, or chemical sources
3. mechanical injury can be caused by impact of a body part causing direct injury, such as falling off a bike
4. thermal injury is caused by extremes of temperature, as occurs with burns and frostbite

• from within the body system
• In allergic reactions, toxins are released from within the body, which cause cell damage and associated symptoms.

• from the external environment
• alcohol can damage the cells of the liver with prolonged exposure

TIPS

• Toxins (chemical, pathogenic)
• Infections
• Physical injury (mechanical, chemical, thermal)
• Serum deficit injury (nutrition, hydration, oxygenation)

• toxic oxygen molecules or radicals that are formed by the reaction between oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) during mitochondrial respiration
• ROS species include:
• superoxide (O2-)
• hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• hydroxyl radical (OH)
• peroxynitrite (ONOO-)

• a condition of hyperplasia prompted by hormone stimulation of excessive growth
• abnormal growth of the hands and feet

• hormone secreted by the liver
• promotes growth in bones, cartilage, soft tissues, and organs

• a condition of hyperplasia characterized by excessive growth.
• growth hormone excess occurs prior to the closure of the epiphyseal growth plates of the long bones
• effects infants and children, increasing their height up to three times of the expected height for their age

• epithelium consisting of a single flattened layer of cells
• cell type lining the outside of the cervix and the vagina
• apparent on physical when the cervix is visualized

• single layer of epithelial cells taller than they are wide
• the cell type lining the endocervical canal
• provides secretions that plug the canal with mucus and protect the uterus from pathogens that can ascend from the vagina

• area of the merger of squamous and columnar epithelium
• also known as the transformation zone of the cervix

• area of the merger of squamous and columnar epithelium
• also known as the squamocolumnar junction of the cervix

• DNA virus
• specific viral strains cause cutaneous and genital warts and severe cervical intraepithelial lesions

• active
• cigarette smoke
• contains  toxic free radicals

• Passive or secondhand
• cigarette smoke
• contains  toxic free radicals