Term
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Definition
| any of the insulin-producing cells in the islets of Langerhans. |
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Term
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Definition
| produced in humans primarily by the parafollicular cells (also known as C-cells) of the thyroid. It acts to reduce blood calcium (Ca2+), opposing the effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH). |
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Term
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Definition
produced in humans in the adrenal cortex within the adrenal gland. It is released in response to stress and low blood-glucose concentration.
It functions to increase blood sugar, to suppress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates.It also decreases bone formation. |
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Term
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Definition
| he process by which a cell decreases the quantity of a cellular component, such as RNA or protein, in response to an external variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| An increase of a cellular component is called this. An example of downregulation is the cellular decrease in the number of receptors to a molecule, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, which reduces the cell's sensitivity to the molecule. |
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Term
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Definition
part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system that turns immune activity (inflammation) down.
derives from its role in the regulation of the metabolism of glucose, its synthesis in the adrenal cortex, and its steroidal structure |
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Term
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Definition
| characterized by their influence on salt and water balances (retention). An example of this is aldosterone. |
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Term
| Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
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Definition
| is secreted by the chief cells of the parathyroid glands. essentially acts to increase the concentration of calcium in the blood by acting upon the parathyroid hormone 1 receptor, which is present at high levels in bone and kidney, and the parathyroid hormone 2 receptor, which is present at high levels in the central nervous system, pancreas, testis, and placenta |
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Term
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Definition
| an extracellular substance (as the hormone epinephrine or the neurotransmitter serotonin) that binds to a cell-surface receptor and initiates intracellular activity |
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Term
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Definition
| molecules that relay signals received at receptors on the cell surface — such as the arrival of protein hormones, growth factors, etc. — to target molecules in the cytosol and/or nucleus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thyrotropin-releasing hormone |
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Term
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Definition
| a releasing hormone, produced by the hypothalamus, that stimulates the release of thyrotropin (thyroid-stimulating hormone or TSH) and prolactin from the anterior pituitary. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adrenocorticotropic Hormone. Produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.[3] It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress (along with its precursor corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus). Its principal effects are increased production and release of cortisol by the cortex of the adrenal gland. |
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Term
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Definition
| Growth Hormone is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans. It is synthesized, stored, and secreted by somatotropic cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland. It is a stress hormone that raises the concentration of glucose and free fatty acids. |
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Term
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Definition
| Growth hormone-releasing hormone also known as growth hormone releasing factor is a releasing hormone of growth hormone which is produced in the hypothalamus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Corticotropin-releasing hormone also known as corticoptropin-releasing factor is a peptide hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the stress response. Its main function is the stimulation of the pituitary synthesis of ACTH. |
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Term
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Definition
| has diverse functions, including sexual differentiation, growth and development, continuous maintenance of the body’s internal environment, and adaptive responses to stress. |
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Term
| Parts of the endocrine system |
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Definition
| hypothalamus/pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, endocrine pancreas, adrenal |
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Term
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Definition
| The pacemaker of the endocrine system |
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Term
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Definition
| the central hub of the endocrine system |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis |
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Definition
Structure and function to integrate neuro and endocrine system.
Produces releasing/inhibitiory hormones and tropic hormones. Tropic acts on an endocrine gland. Non-tropic directly stimulate the target |
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Term
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Definition
| this gland produces: growth hormone, adrenocorticotropin, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle stimulation hormone, lutenizing hormone, prolactin |
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Term
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Definition
| this gland produces: antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin |
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Term
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Definition
| this gland produces glucocortiocids, mineralocorticoids, androgenic steroids. |
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Term
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Definition
| this gland produces catecholamines |
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Term
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Definition
| this gland produces thyroxine/triidothyronine, calcitonin |
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Term
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Definition
| this gland produces parathormone |
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Term
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Definition
| the cuddling hormone. Deals with empathy |
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Term
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Definition
| this gland produces insulin and glucagon |
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Term
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Definition
| puts calcium in the bones. reduces calcium levels in the blood |
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Term
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Definition
| elevates the level of calcium in the blood |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical messengers that are released by glands. They help with communication. Have specific rates and rhytms of secretions, operate within feedback systems, affect only cells with appropriate receptors and inactivated by the liver or directly excreted by the kidney |
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Term
| Autocrine (communication) |
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Definition
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Term
| paracrine (communication) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| more of something we shut it down |
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Term
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Definition
| more of something and then more is added |
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Term
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Definition
| Hormones are released into the circulatory system by endocrine glands and distributed throughout the body. |
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Term
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Definition
| circulate in free, unbound forms. |
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Term
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Definition
| primarily transported bound to a carrier or transport protein. |
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Term
| Target cells (hormone receptors) |
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Definition
| Recognize and bind with a high affinity to hormones.Initiate a signal. The more receptors, the more sensitive the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| low concentrations of hormones increase the number of receptors per cell |
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Term
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Definition
| high concetrations of hormones decrease the number of receptors |
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Term
| How do fat-soluble hormones get into the cell? |
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Definition
| go directly through lipid bilayer. |
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Term
| How do water-soluble hormones get into the cell? |
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Definition
has an initial receptor on the cell surface which then activates a second messenger which then releases protein kinase A or C and causes the cellular response
Hormone is released from an endocrine gland and presents to the cell as the
FIRST MESSENGER; SECOND MESSENGER (intracellular hormonal mediator) is the initial link between the first signal (hormone) and the inside of the cell.
and causes hormonal effects in the cell. |
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Term
| What are the effects of hormones? |
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Definition
Act on preexisting channel-forming proteins to alter membrane channel permeability.
Activate preexisting proteins through second messengers.
Activate genes to cause protein synthesis. |
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Term
| The structure of the hypothalamic pituitary axis |
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Definition
| Again known as the central control in the body it is composed of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland (anterior and posterior) also known as the (adenohypophsis and the neurophyophysis) |
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Term
| What are some hormones that influence the hypothalamus? |
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Definition
Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF)
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Somatostatin Growth hormone–releasing factor (GRF)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Substance P (works on pain) |
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Term
| The Pineal gland (where is it and where is it located) |
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Definition
Is located within the brain itself. Is made up of photoreceptive cells that secrete melatonin.
Melatonin regulates circadian rhythms
Plays an important role in immune regulation.
Possibly affects the aging process. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| regulates circadian rhythms and reproductive systems, including secretion of GnRH and the onset of puberty. |
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Term
| What does the thyroid gland do? |
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Definition
| Composed of two lobes lateral to the trachea resembling a butterfly made up of follicles and parafollicular cells (secrete calcitonin to lower serum calcium). |
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Term
| What does TSH do when it increases? |
|
Definition
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) does the following:
Release of stored thyroid hormones
Iodide uptake and oxidation
Thyroid hormone synthesis
Synthesis and secretion of prostaglandins by the thyroid gland |
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Term
| Thyroid Hormone (T4 and T3) |
|
Definition
T4 90%.
T3 10%.
They are bound to thyroxine-binding globulin, thyroxine-binding prealbumin, or albumin.
They Affect the growth and maturation of tissues, cell metabolism, heat production, cardiac functioning, and oxygen consumption. “pacemaker of the body”
T3 converts to T4 |
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Term
|
Definition
| They oppose thyroid hormone |
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Term
| Where and what are the parathyroid glands? |
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Definition
Are small glands located behind the thyroid gland.
Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Regulates serum calcium.
Increases serum calcium concentration.
Decreases serum phosphate level.
Serves as co-factor with vitamin D to increase calcium absorption.
Is an antagonist of calcitonin. |
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Term
| What does the pancreas do? |
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Definition
| It is a endocrine gland: Produces the hormones glucagon and insulin. Responsible for carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. Also an exocrine gland: produces digestive enzymes |
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Term
| Where does Vitamin D convert? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where is the islets of Langergans and what does it do? |
|
Definition
Housed in the pancreas. It Secretes glucagon and insulin
Alpha cells: Glucagon
Beta cells: Insulin and amylin
Delta cells: Somatostatin (not hypothalamic) and gastrin
F cells: Pancreatic polypeptide |
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Term
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Definition
| hormone from alpha cells which acts in liver to increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis |
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Term
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Definition
| Beta cell hormone that increases satiety and suppresses glucagon. |
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Term
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Definition
| from GI tract in response to food to increase sensitivity of beta cells to glucose. |
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Term
| What does insulin do with potassium? |
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Definition
| It drives potassium into the cell. |
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Term
| What does the adrenal glands do? |
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Definition
Two pyramid-shaped organs above the kidneys. The Adrenal cortex is 80% of an adrenal gland’s total weight. It is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Some of the Glucocorticoid hormones it produces are: Cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone
Some of the Mineralocorticoid hormones that it secretes: Aldosterone
The Adrenal medulla is the inner portion of the gland. It Releases catecholamines has been characterized as a “fight or flight” response. Catecholamines also promote hyperglycemia. |
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Term
| What does Aldosterone do? |
|
Definition
| maintains extracellular volume to increase sodium reabsorption and potassium and hydrogen excretion. Regulated by RAAS. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| primary stimulant of aldosterone synthesis and secretion. Sodium and potassium levels may also directly impact. |
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Term
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Definition
| an extremely rare syndrome that results when the anterior pituitary gland produces excess growth hormone (GH) after epiphyseal plate closure at puberty. If GH is produced in excess prior to epiphyseal plate closure, the result is gigantism |
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Term
| Cushing's disease and syndrome |
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Definition
| Cushing's disease is a specific type of Cushing's syndrome caused by a pituitary tumor leading to excessive production of ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone). Excessive ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce high levels of cortisol, producing the disease state. |
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Term
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Definition
| A rare form of diabetes caused by a deficiency of the pituitary hormone vasopressin, which regulates kidney function. |
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Term
|
Definition
a group of metabolic diseases in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period.[2] Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications.[3] Acute complications include diabetic ketoacidosis and nonketotic hyperosmolar coma.[4] Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney failure, foot ulcers, and damage to the eyes.[3]
Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin or the cells of the body not responding properly to the insulin produced. |
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Term
|
Definition
a rare, usually noncancerous (benign) tumor that develops in cells in the center of an adrenal gland. You have two adrenal glands, one above each kidney. Your adrenal glands produce hormones that give instructions to virtually every organ and tissue in your body.
If you have one of these, an adrenal gland releases hormones that cause persistent or episodic high blood pressure. If left untreated, this can result in severe or life-threatening damage to other body systems, especially the cardiovascular system. |
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Term
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Definition
| a condition in which your thyroid gland produces too much of the hormone thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism can accelerate your body's metabolism significantly, causing sudden weight loss, a rapid or irregular heartbeat, sweating, and nervousness or irritability. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a condition in which your thyroid gland doesn't produce enough of certain important hormones.This upsets the normal balance of chemical reactions in your body. It seldom causes symptoms in the early stages, but over time, untreated hypothyroidism can cause a number of health problems, such as obesity, joint pain, infertility and heart disease. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a disorder in which the adrenal gland releases too much of the hormone aldosterone into the blood. Can be either primary or secondary |
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Term
| What causes the feedback systems of the endocrine system fails? |
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Definition
May fail to function properly. May respond to inappropriate signals
Look at slid 5 on endocrine 2 |
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Term
| What is target cell dysfunction? |
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Definition
Failure of target cell to respond to its hormone (hormone insensitivity).
Receptor-associated disorders-Decrease in receptors. Impaired function. Presence of antibodies against specific receptors. Antibodies that mimic hormone action. Unusual expression of receptor function
Intracellular disorders - Inadequate synthesis of a second messenger
Failure of the target cell to produce anticipated hormonal response - Faulty response to hormone-receptor binding. Failure to generate required second messenger. Abnormal response to the second messenger |
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Term
| Hyperfunction (diseases of the anterior pituitary) |
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Definition
Too much growth hormone produced (or hyperpituitarism - hypersecretion of growth hormone. Hypersecretion of prolactin).
Examples of diseases: primary adenoma, acromegaly, prolatinoma |
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Term
| Hypofunction (diseases of the anterior pituitary) |
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Definition
Hypopituitarism (not enough hormone released).
Examples of diseases: panhypopituitarism, ACTH deficiency, TSH deficiency, FSH stimulating hormone deficiency, LH deficiency, GH deficiency |
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Term
| Hyperfunction (alterations of thyroid function) |
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Definition
Hyperthyroidism
Example of diseases: thyrotoxicosis, Graves disease, hyperthyroidism resulting from nodular thyroid disease. Thyrotoxic crisis (thyroid storm) |
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Term
| Hyperfunction (diseases of the posterior pituitary) |
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Definition
Too much antidiuretic hormone.
Example of diseases: syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion |
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Term
| Hypofunction (diseases of the posterior pituitary) |
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Definition
Too little antidiuretic hormone.
Example: Diabetes insipidus can be either neurogenic or nephrogenic |
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|
Term
| Hypofunction (alterations of thyroid function) |
|
Definition
Hypothyroidism.
Examples of diseases: primary hypothyroidism, hashimoto disease, secondary hypothyroidism, subclinical hypothyroidism, congenital hypothyroidism, and thyroid carcinoma |
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Term
| Alterations of Thyroid Function (Primary) |
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Definition
| Dysfunction or disease of the thyroid gland. Alters thyroid hormone (TH) production |
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Term
| Alterations of Thyroid Function (Secondary) |
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Definition
| Conditions that cause alterations in pituitary or hypothalamic functioning. Alters TSH or thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) production |
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Term
|
Definition
A hyperthyroid condition. Also an autoimmune disease.
clinical mainfestations: ophthalmopathy, exophthalmos: increased secretion of hyaluronic acid, orbital fat accumulation, inflammation, and edema of the orbital contents. Diplopia: double vision. Pretibial myxedema (Graves dermopathy) and leg swelling |
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Term
| Thyrotoxic crisis (thyroid storm) |
|
Definition
Rare but life threatening within 48 hours if not treated.Results from excessive stress.Increased action of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Clinical manifestations: Hyperthermia; tachycardia, especially atrial tachydysrhythmias; high-output heart failure; agitation or delirium; and nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea |
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Term
| Hyperthyroidism, resulting from nodular thyroid disease |
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Definition
Toxic multinodular goiter: Several hyperfunctioning nodules secrete thyroid hormone.
Solitary toxic adenoma: Only one nodule becomes hyperfunctioning.
Clinical manifestations: Are the same as hyperthyroidism but occur slowly. Exophthalmos and pretibial myxedema do not occur. |
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Term
|
Definition
Deficient production of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland.
Primary hypothyroidism:
Iodine deficiency (endemic goiter): Most common worldwide
Autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto disease): Most common hypothyroidism in the United States
Subacute thyroiditis
Painless thyroiditis
Iatrogenic thyroiditis
Postpartum thyroiditis |
|
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Term
| Congenital Hypothyroidism |
|
Definition
| Thyroid hormone deficiency present at birth if not treated, cretinism develops. Neonatal screening to reduce incidents. Need to Adminstrate T4 |
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Term
|
Definition
| Most common endocrine malignancy from ionizing radiation. Changes in voice and swallowing and difficulty in breathing, related to a tumor growth impinging the trachea or esophagus. Some may have normal T3 and T4 levels |
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Term
|
Definition
| Conditions that cause either pituitary or hypothalamic failure with deficiency of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and TSH |
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Term
|
Definition
| a mixture of proteins and phospholipids forming a whitish insulating sheath around many nerve fibers, increasing the speed at which impulses are conducted. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that typically conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body. Myelinated axons are known as nerve fibers. The function of these structures is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles and glands. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The cell body of a neuron |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia. are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system |
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Term
|
Definition
| a type of “support” cell in the PNS. Some important points about these cells are: that they are insulated (myelinated) individual nerve fibers (axons), which is necessary for sending appropriate electrical signals throughout the nervous system. |
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Term
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Definition
| structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron. |
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Term
|
Definition
| are endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission. They transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such as in a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| autonomic nervous system. The part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes |
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Term
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Definition
| the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction—in other words, it is the chemical that motor neurons of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles. |
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Term
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Definition
| the anterior part of the brain, including the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus. |
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Term
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Definition
| a small central part of the brainstem, developing from the middle of the primitive or embryonic brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| a process that results when a nerve fiber is cut or crushed, in which the part of the axon separated from the neuron's cell body degenerates distal to the injury. |
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Term
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Definition
| the lower part of the brainstem, comprising the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. |
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Term
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Definition
| a button like swelling on an axon where it has a synapse with another neuron. |
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Term
|
Definition
| To be below or beneath the skin |
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Term
|
Definition
the anatomic space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.
It is occupied by spongy tissue consisting of trabeculae (delicate connective tissue filaments that extend from the arachnoid mater and blend into the pia mater) and intercommunicating channels in which the cerebrospinal fluid is contained. |
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Term
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Definition
| a medical route of administration in which a drug or contrast agent is injected into the epidural space of the spinal cord. Techniques such as epidural analgesia and epidural anaesthesia employ this route of administration. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a sensory neuron (nerve cell) that responds to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal cord and brain. This process, called nociception, usually causes the perception of pain. |
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Term
| Excitatory Neurotransmitters |
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Definition
| Neurotransmitters that stimulate the brain |
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Term
| Inhibitory Neurotransmitters |
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Definition
| Neurotransmitters that inhibit the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| substances that act on the nervous system in a similar way to opiates such as morphine and codeine. These are usually medications that are artificially made rather than extracted from opium |
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Term
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Definition
| an event following after a seizure or a state of consciousness after an epileptic seizure that lasts between 5 to 30 minutes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a central nervous system disorder (neurological disorder) in which nerve cell activity in the brain becomes disrupted, causing seizures or periods of unusual behavior, sensations and sometimes loss of consciousness. |
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Term
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Definition
| a sudden, violent, irregular movement of a limb or of the body, caused by involuntary contraction of muscles and associated especially with brain disorders such as epilepsy, the presence of certain toxins or other agents in the blood, or fever in children |
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Term
|
Definition
| a dangerous condition in which epileptic seizures follow one another without recovery of consciousness between them. |
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Term
|
Definition
| are a type of generalized seizure that affects the entire brain. These type of seizures are the seizure type most commonly associated with epilepsy and seizures in general, though it is a misconception that they are the only type. |
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Term
|
Definition
| describes a group of symptoms affecting memory, thinking and social abilities severely enough to interfere with daily functioning. indicates problems with at least two brain functions, such as memory loss and impaired judgment or language, and the inability to perform some daily activities such as paying bills or becoming lost while driving. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The most common and least serious type of traumatic brain injury. Often caused by a sudden direct blow or bump to the head. The brain is made of soft tissue. It's cushioned by spinal fluid and encased in the protective shell of the skull. When you sustain a traumatic event, the impact can jolt your brain. Sometimes, it literally causes it to move around in your head. Traumatic brain injuries can cause bruising, damage to the blood vessels, and injury to the nerves. |
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Term
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Definition
| tissue death (necrosis) caused by a local lack of oxygen, due to an obstruction of the tissue's blood supply. |
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Term
|
Definition
| occurs when a blood clot that forms elsewhere in the body (embolus) breaks loose and travels to the brain via the bloodstream. |
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Term
|
Definition
| occurs when a blood clot (Thrombus) forms in one of the arteries that supply blood to your brain. A lot may be caused by fatty deposits (plaque) that build up in arteries and cause reduced blood flow (atherosclerosis) or other artery conditions |
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Term
|
Definition
| loss or impairment of the power of voluntary movement. |
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Term
|
Definition
| the continuous and passive part contraction of the muscles, or the muscle's resistance to passive stretch during resting state. It helps to maintain posture and declines during REM sleep |
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Term
|
Definition
| Flexion, Extension, Abduction, Adduction, Medial, Lateral, Elevation, Depression, Pronation, Supination, Dorsiflexion, Plantarflexion, Opposition, Reposition |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| occurs when there is also a tremor and is characterized by a "stop and go" effect during a range of motion maneuver. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a serious disturbance in mental abilities that results in confused thinking and reduced awareness of your environment. |
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Term
|
Definition
| are motor neurons that originate either in the motor region of the cerebral cortex or in the brain stem and carry motor information down to the lower motor neurons. The cell bodies of these neurons are the largest in the brain, approaching nearly 0.1mm in diameter. |
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Term
|
Definition
| the duct by which urine passes from the kidney to the bladder |
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Term
|
Definition
| the duct by which urine is conveyed out of the body from the bladder, and which in male vertebrates also conveys semen. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a tough fibrous layer surrounding the kidney and covered in a thick layer of perinephric adipose tissue. It provides some protection from trauma and damage. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the outer portion of the kidney between the renal capsule and the renal medulla. In the adult, it forms a continuous smooth outer zone with a number of projections (cortical columns) that extend down between the pyramids. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the innermost part of the kidney. It is split up into a number of sections, known as the renal pyramids. Blood enters into the kidney via the renal artery, which then splits up to form the interlobar arteries. |
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Term
|
Definition
| the point of convergence of two or three major calyces. Each renal papilla is surrounded by a branch of these called a calyx. The major function of this is to act as a funnel for urine flowing to the ureter. |
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Term
|
Definition
| are cone-shaped tissues of the kidney. The renal medulla is made up of 7 to 18 of these conical subdivisions (usually 7 in humans). The broad base of each pyramid faces the renal cortex, and its apex, or papilla, points internally. The pyramids appear striped because they are formed by straight parallel segments of nephrons and collecting ducts. The base of each pyramid originates at the corticomedullary border and the apex terminates in a papilla, which lies within a minor calyx, made of parallel bundles of urine collecting tubules. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a cluster of capillaries around the end of a kidney tubule, where waste products are filtered from the blood. |
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|
Term
| Proximal Convoluted Tubule |
|
Definition
| portion of the nephron that lies between Bowman's capsule and the loop of Henle and functions especially in the resorption of sugar, sodium and chloride ions, and water from the glomerular filtrate |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system. It is partly responsible for the regulation of potassium, sodium, calcium, and pH. It is the primary site for the kidneys' hormone based regulation of calcium |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the portion of the renal tubule constituting the first part of the loop of Henle. Sodium and chloride ions do not easily pass through. Urea has moderate permeability. Water is highly permeable. Water is readily reabsorbed from the descending limb by osmosis. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a segment of the nephron in the kidney divided into a thin and thick ascending limb. The limb drains urine into the distal convoluted tubule. Sodium, potassium, and chloride ions are reabsorbed by active transport. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a group of blood vessels that supply the nephrons in many excretory systems. They play an important role in the regulation of blood pressure as a part of the tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. |
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Definition
| cells in the kidney that synthesize, store, and secrete the enzyme renin. They are specialized smooth muscle cells mainly in the walls of the afferent arterioles, and some in the efferent arterioles, that deliver blood to the glomerulus. |
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Definition
| (or visceral epithelial cells) are cells in the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys that wrap around capillaries of the glomerulus. These wrap around the capillaries, and leave slits between them. Blood is filtered through these slits, each known as a filtration slit or slit diaphragm. |
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Definition
| A single layer of simple squamous epithelium. Does not function in filtration. |
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| the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney.Its chief function is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. It eliminates wastes from the body, regulates blood volume and blood pressure, controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulates blood pH. |
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Term
| Renin-angiotensin aldosterone system |
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Definition
| a hormone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. When renal blood flow is reduced, juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys convert the prorenin already present in the blood into renin and secrete it directly into the circulation. Plasma renin then carries out the conversion of angiotensinogen released by the liver to angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is subsequently converted to angiotensin II by the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme found in the lungs. Angiotensin II is a potent vaso-active peptide that causes blood vessels to constrict, resulting in increased blood pressure. Angiotensin II also stimulates the secretion of the hormone aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone causes the tubules of the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of sodium and water into the blood, while at the same time causing the excretion of potassium (to maintain electrochemical balance). This increases the volume of extracellular fluid in the body, which also increases blood pressure. |
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Definition
| a system where fluid flows in a loop so that the entrance and exit are at similar low concentration of a dissolved substance but at the far end of the loop there is a high concentration of that substance. |
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Definition
| the volume of plasma from which a substance is completely removed by the kidney in a given amount of time (usually a minute). For example, the clearance for urea is 65 ml/min. |
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Definition
| is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle, and is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body (depending on muscle mass). It is an important indicator of renal health because it is an easily measured byproduct of muscle metabolism that is excreted unchanged by the kidneys. |
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| water inside the kidney. refers to distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces, usually caused by obstruction of the free flow of urine from the kidney. Untreated, it leads to progressive atrophy of the kidney |
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| Struvite precipitates in alkaline urine, forming stones. s found also in urinary tract stones of cats and humans. Struvite stones are potentiated by bacterial infection that hydrolyzes urea to ammonium and raises urine pH to neutral or alkaline values. |
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| a rare condition characterized by overgrowth of the bones, skin, and other tissues. Organs and tissues affected by the disease grow out of proportion to the rest of the body. |
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| a collection of signs (known as a syndrome) associated with disorders affecting the kidneys, more specifically glomerular disorders. It is characterized by having a thin glomerular basement membrane and small pores in the podocytes of the glomerulus, large enough to permit proteins (proteinuria) and red blood cells (hematuria) to pass into the urine. |
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Term
| Glomerular Filtration rate |
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Definition
| a test used to check how well the kidneys are working. Specifically, it estimates how much blood passes through the glomeruli each minute. Glomeruli are the tiny filters in the kidneys that filter waste from the blood. |
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Definition
| the production of abnormally small amounts of urine |
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| an abrupt loss of kidney function that develops within 7 days.Its causes are numerous. Generally it occurs because of damage to the kidney tissue caused by decreased renal blood flow (renal ischemia) from any cause (e.g. low blood pressure), exposure to substances harmful to the kidney, an inflammatory process in the kidney, or an obstruction of the urinary tract which impedes the flow of urine. |
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Term
| clear cell/renal cell carcinoma |
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Definition
| a rare form of endometrial cancer with distinct morphological features on pathology; it is aggressive and has high recurrence rate. |
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Definition
| a type of cancer that typically occurs in the urinary system: the kidney, urinary bladder, and accessory organs. It is the most common type of bladder cancer and cancer of the ureter, urethra, and urachus. |
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Definition
| either of a pair of large salivary glands situated just in front of each ear |
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| either of a pair of salivary glands situated below the lower jaw |
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| the fleshy muscular organ in the mouth of a mammal, used for tasting, licking, swallowing, and (in humans) articulating speech. |
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| the part of the alimentary canal that connects the throat to the stomach; the gullet. In humans and other vertebrates it is a muscular tube lined with mucous membrane. |
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| a dome-shaped structure of muscle and fibrous tissue that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdomen. The dome curves upwards. The superior surface of the dome forms the floor of the thoracic cavity, and the inferior surface the roof of the abdominal cavity. Main muscle used in breathing. |
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Definition
| a large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates, involved in many metabolic processes. |
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Term
| Colon: ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid |
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Definition
The colon is also called the large intestine. The ileum (last part of the small intestine) connects to the cecum (first part of the colon) in the lower right abdomen. The rest of the colon is divided into four parts:
• The ascending colon travels up the right side of the abdomen.
• The transverse colon runs across the abdomen.
• The descending colon travels down the left abdomen.
• The sigmoid colon is a short curving of the colon, just before the rectum.
The colon removes water, salt, and some nutrients forming stool. Muscles line the colon's walls, squeezing its contents along. Billions of bacteria coat the colon and its contents, living in a healthy balance with the body. |
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| the opening at the end of the alimentary canal through which solid waste matter leaves the body. |
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| the sharp bend between the ascending and the transverse colon. The right colic flexure is adjacent to the liver, and is therefore also known as this |
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| The three parts of the small intestines. The small intestines is part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where much of the digestion and absorption of food takes place. |
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| the mucous membrane layer of the stomach which contains the glands and the gastric pits. |
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| a smooth membrane consisting of two layers of epithelial cells (as membranes), which secrete serous fluid. |
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| a cluster of immune cells |
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| each of a number of small swellings in the lymphatic system where lymph is filtered and lymphocytes are formed. |
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Definition
| the epithelial cells that secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor. These cells are located in the gastric glands found in the lining of the fundus and in the body of the stomach. |
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Definition
| a cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and chymosin. Pepsinogen is activated into the digestive enzyme pepsin when it comes in contact with acid produced by gastric parietal cells. |
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Definition
| a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine. |
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Definition
| the main vessel in the portal venous system and drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver. |
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Definition
| are small, finger-like projections that protrude from the epithelial lining of the intestinal wall. |
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Definition
| are found in the epithelia of the small intestine, namely the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. They contain a base of replicating stem cells, Paneth cells of the innate immune system, and goblet cells, which produce mucous. |
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Definition
| blood vessels which transport the liver's deoxygenated blood and blood which has been filtered by the liver (this is blood from the pancreas, colon, small intestine, and stomach) to the inferior vena cava. It originate in the liver lobule's central vein. |
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Definition
| a blood vessel that conducts blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver. This blood is rich in nutrients that have been extracted from food, and the liver processes these nutrients; it also filters toxins that may have been ingested with the food. |
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| A virus that causes severe bleeding, organ failure, and can lead to death. Diarrhea is the main avenue of death with this virus. |
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Definition
| The action of vomiting up blood |
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Definition
| refers to the black "tarry" feces that are associated with upper gastrointestinal bleeding.The black color is caused by the hemoglobin in the blood being altered by digestive chemicals and intestinal bacteria. |
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Definition
| the passage of fresh blood through the anus, usually in or with stools |
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Term
| Esophageal and Hemorrhoidal Varcies |
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Definition
| The terms rectal varices and haemorrhoids are often used interchangeably, but this is not correct.[6] Haemorrhoids occur due to prolapse of the rectal venous plexus and are no more common in patients with portal hypertension than those without.[7] Rectal varices, however, are only found in patients with portal hypertension and are common in conditions such as cirrhosis |
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Definition
| make the sound and movement of vomiting |
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Definition
| a condition in which there is difficulty in emptying the bowels, usually associated with hardened feces |
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Definition
| severe or complete constipation |
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Definition
| difficulty or discomfort in swallowing, as a symptom of disease |
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Definition
| a condition in which the muscles of the lower part of the esophagus fail to relax, preventing food from passing into the stomach. |
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Definition
| abnormal protrusion of an organ or other body structure through a defect or natural opening in a covering membrane, muscle, or bone. |
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Definition
| passage of a loop of intestine through a small orifice, e.g. inguinal canal, with resulting swelling, obstruction and occlusion of blood supply |
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Definition
| the arrest of blood flow to the bowel, causing edema, cyanosis, and gangrene of the affected loop of bowel. This condition is usually caused by a hernia, intussusception, or volvulus. |
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Definition
| an obstruction caused by twisting of the stomach or intestine. |
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Definition
| the inversion of one portion of the intestine within another |
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Definition
| an abnormal union of membranous surfaces due to inflammation or injury |
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Definition
| An inflammation, irritation, or erosion of the lining of the stomach. |
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Definition
| a group of symptoms, including weakness, abdominal discomfort, and sometimes abnormally rapid bowel evacuation, occurring after meals in some patients who have undergone gastric surgery |
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Term
| Inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's Disease) |
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Definition
| cause inflammation of the lining of your digestive tract. In Crohn's disease, inflammation often spreads deep into affected tissues. The inflammation can involve different areas of the digestive tract — the large intestine, small intestine or both. |
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Definition
| known as vitamin B12 deficiency One way pernicious anemia can develop is by loss of gastric parietal cells, which are responsible, in part, for the secretion of intrinsic factor, a protein essential for subsequent absorption of vitamin B12 in the ileum. The loss of ability to absorb vitamin B12 is the most common cause of adult B12 deficiency. A common underlying cause is atrophic gastritis with autoimmune destruction of gastric parietal cells (and autoantibody inactivation of intrinsic factor) leading to a lack of intrinsic factor |
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Definition
| is the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and changes in personality. |
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Definition
| a chronic digestive disease. It occurs when stomach acid or, occasionally, stomach content, flows back into your food pipe (esophagus). The backwash (reflux) irritates the lining of your esophagus and causes this. |
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Definition
| Matter that has been vomited. (types??) |
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Definition
| a yellowish discoloration of the skin, mucous membranes and of the white of the eyes caused by elevated levels of the chemical bilirubin in the blood |
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Definition
| conjugated with glucuronic acid by the enzyme glucuronyltransferase, making it soluble in water: the conjugated version is also often called "direct" bilirubin. Much of it goes into the bile and thus out into the small intestine. |
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Definition
| a condition where bile cannot flow from the liver to the duodenum. The two basic distinctions are an obstructive type of cholestasis where there is a mechanical blockage in the duct system that can occur from a gallstone or malignancy, and metabolic types of cholestasis which are disturbances in bile formation that can occur because of genetic defects or acquired as a side effect of many medications. |
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Definition
| an increase in the blood pressure within a system of veins called the portal venous system. Veins coming from the stomach, intestine, spleen, and pancreas merge into the portal vein, which then branches into smaller vessels and travels through the liver |
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Definition
g involves measurement of several hepatitis B
virus (HBV)-specifi c antigens and antibodies. Different serologic “markers”
or combinations of markers are used to identify different phases of HBV
infection and to determine whether a patient has acute or chronic HBV
infection, is immune to HBV as a result of prior infection or vaccination, or
is susceptible to infection |
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Definition
| the accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, causing abdominal swelling. |
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Term
| Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis |
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Definition
| he development of peritonitis (infection in the abdominal cavity) despite the absence of an obvious source for the infection. It occurs almost exclusively in people with portal hypertension (increased pressure over the portal vein), usually as a result of cirrhosis of the liver.It can also occur in patients with nephrotic syndrome. |
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Definition
| a late stage of scarring (fibrosis) of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, such as hepatitis and chronic alcohol abuse. The liver carries out several necessary functions, including detoxifying harmful substances in your body, cleaning your blood and making vital nutrients. |
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Definition
| the excretion of abnormal quantities of fat with the feces owing to reduced absorption of fat by the intestine. |
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Definition
| When food cannot be broken down into simpler substances |
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Definition
| imperfect absorption of food material by the small intestine |
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Definition
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Definition
| are motor neurons located in either the anterior grey column, anterior nerve roots (spinal lower motor neurons) or the cranial nerve nuclei of the brainstem and cranial nerves with motor function (cranial nerve lower motor neurons). All voluntary movement relies on spinal lower motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscle fibers and act as a link between upper motor neurons and muscles |
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Definition
| blood vessels that are part of the urinary tract of organisms. These arterioles form from a convergence of the capillaries of the glomerulus. They play an important role in maintaining the glomerular filtration rate despite fluctuations in blood pressure. |
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Definition
| a sharp bend between the transverse and the descending colon in the left upper quadrant of humans. The left colic flexure is near the spleen, and hence called this. |
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Term
| Inflammatory Bowel Disease (Ulcerative colitis) |
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Definition
| n inflammatory bowel disease that causes long-lasting inflammation and sores (ulcers) in the innermost lining of your large intestine (colon) and rectum. |
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Definition
| not water-soluble and so is not excreted in the urine. |
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