Term
|
Definition
Electrolytes are minerals in your blood and other body fluids that carry an electric charge.
Electrolytes affect the amount of water in your body, the acidity of your blood (pH), your muscle function, and other important processes. You lose electrolytes when you sweat. You must replace them by drinking fluids.
Common electrolytes include:
- Calcium
- Chloride
- Magnesium
- Phosphorous
- Potassium
- Sodium
Electrolytes can be acids, bases, and salts.
They can be measured by laboratory studies of the blood in different ways. Each electrolyte can be ordered as a separate test, such as:
- Ionized calcium
- Serum calcium
- Serum chloride
- Serum magnesium
- Serum phosphorus
- Serum potassium
- Serum sodium
Note: Serum is the part of blood that doesn't contain cells.
Sodium, potassium, and chloride can also be ordered as part of an electrolyte panel or a basic metabolic panel.
The electrolytes - urine test measures electrolytes in urine. It usually measures the levels of calcium, chloride, potassium, or sodium. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has an electric charge. Ions with a positive charge are called cations. Ions with a negative charge are called anions.
Many normal substances exist in the body as ions. Common examples include sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and bicarbonate. (See: Electrolytes)
Ions can be created using radiation such as x-rays. Ionizing radiation is often used for diagnostic or therapeutic procedures. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A cation is an ionic species with a positive charge.
Examples:
Ca2+, Na+, H+, K+
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Anion Definition: An ionic species having a negative charge.
Anion Examples: chloride, bicarbonite, sulfate, phosphate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an electrolytesolution and a complex. In most cases the term is used to denote the processes of purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions with solid polymeric or mineralic 'ion exchangers'.
Ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an electrolytesolution and a complex. In most cases the term is used to denote the processes of purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions with solid polymeric or mineralic 'ion exchangers'.
[image] |
|
|
Term
Extracellular and intracellular norms of the following electrolytes
Na+
K+
Cl-
Ca2+
HCO3-
|
|
Definition
Na+: EX: 135-145 mEq/L IN: 10-14 mEq/L
K+: EX: 3.5-5 mEq/L IN: 140-150 mEq/L
Cl-: EX: 98-106 mEq/L IN: 3-4 mEq/L
Ca2+: EX: 8.5-10.5 mg/dl IN: <1mEq/L
HCO3-: EX: 24-31 mEq/L IN: 7-10 mEq/L
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
manifestations: muscle cramps, twitching, and weakness
Hyponatremia is a metabolic condition in which there is not enough sodium (salt) in the body fluids outside the cells; caused by one of three conditions:
- Euvolemic hyponatremia -- total body water increases, but the body's sodium content stays the same
- Hypervolemic hyponatremia -- both sodium and water content in the body increase, but the water gain is greater
- Hypovolemic hyponatremia -- water and sodium are both lost from the body, but the sodium loss is greater
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Oliguria is the low output of urine, It is clinically classified as an output below 300-500ml/day.The decreased output of urine may be a sign of dehydration, renal failure,hypovolemic shock, HHNS hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketotic Syndrome, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, urinary obstruction/urinary retention, DKA, pre-eclampsia, andurinary tract infections, among other conditions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Anuria means nonpassage of urine, in practice is defined as passage of less than 50milliliters of urine in a day. Anuria is often caused by failure in the function of kidneys. It may also occur because of some severe obstruction like kidney stones or tumours. It may occur with end stage renal disease. It is a more extreme reduction than oliguria, sometimes called anuresis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
man: Thirst, dry skin, and mucous membranes
an electrolyte disturbance that is defined by an elevated sodium level in the blood.[1]Hypernatremia is generally not caused by an excess of sodium, but rather by a relative deficit of free water in the body. For this reason, hypernatremia is often synonymous with the less precise term, dehydration.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
or "hangover leg", refers to the condition in which the concentration of potassium (K+) in the blood is low.
Normal plasma potassium levels are between 3.5 to 5.0 mEq/L;[1] at least 95% of the body's potassium is found inside cells, with the remainder in the blood. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
man: Cardiac arrest
he condition in which the concentration of the electrolyte potassium (K+) in the blood is elevated. Extreme hyperkalemia is a medical emergency due to the risk of potentially fatal abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia).
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally low level of the chloride ion in the blood. The normal serum range for chloride is 97 to 107 mEq/L.
It rarely occurs in the absence of other abnormalities.
It can be associated with hypoventilation.[1]
It can be associated with chronic respiratory acidosis.[2]
If it occurs together with metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity) it is often due to vomiting.
[edit] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally elevated level of the chloride ion in the blood. The normal serum range for chloride is 97 to 107 mEq/L. Hyperchloremia is defined as a chloride concentration exceeding this level.
Hyperchloremia can affect oxygen transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is the presence of low serum calcium levels in the blood, usually taken as less than 2.1 mmol/L or 9 mg/dl or an ionized calcium level of less than 1.1 mmol/L or 4.5 mg/dL. It is a type of electrolyte disturbance.
It manifests as a symptom of a parathyroid hormone [PTH] deficiency/malfunction, a Vitamin D deficiency, or unusually high magnesium levels (hypermagnesaemia), or low magnesium levels (hypomagnesaemia). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an elevated calcium level in the blood.[1] (Normal range: 9–10.5 mg/dL or 2.2–2.6 mmol/L). It can be an asymptomatic laboratory finding, but because an elevated calcium level is often indicative of other diseases, a workup should be undertaken if it persists. It can be due to excessive skeletal calcium release, increased intestinal calcium absorption, or decreased renal calcium excretion.
Primary hyperparathyroidism and malignancy account for about 90% of cases of hypercalcaemia. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally low level of magnesium in the blood.[1]Normal magnesium levels in humans fall between 1.5 - 2.5 mg/dL.
Low levels of magnesium in blood may mean that there is not enough magnesium in the diet, the intestines are not absorbing enough magnesium, or the kidneys are excreting too much magnesium. Deficiencies may be due to the following conditions:
[edit] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally elevated level of magnesium in the blood.[1] Usually this results in excess of magnesium in the body.
Hypermagnesemia occurs rarely because the kidney is very effective in excreting excess magnesium. It usually develops only in people with kidney failure who are given magnesium salts or who take drugs that contain magnesium (e.g. some antacids and laxatives). It is usually concurrent withhypocalcemia and/or hyperkalemia. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally low level of phosphate in the blood. The condition has many causes, but is most commonly seen when malnourished patients (especially chronic alcoholics) are given large amounts of carbohydrates, which creates a high phosphorus demand by cells, removing phosphate from the blood (refeeding syndrome). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Paresthesia refers to a burning or prickling sensation that is usually felt in the hands, arms, legs, or feet, but can also occur in other parts of the body. The sensation, which happens without warning, is usually painless and described as tingling or numbness, skin crawling, or itching.
Chronic paresthesia is often a symptom of an underlying neurological disease or traumatic nerve damage. Paresthesia can be caused by disorders affecting the central nervous system, such as stroke and transient ischemic attacks (mini-strokes), multiple sclerosis, transverse myelitis, and encephalitis. A tumor or vascular lesion pressed up against the brain or spinal cord can also cause paresthesia. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally elevated level of phosphate in the blood.[1] Often, calcium levels are lowered (hypocalcemia) due to precipitation of phosphate with the calcium in tissues. Average phosphorus levels should be between 0.81 mmol/L and 1.45 mmol/L.
In this situation, there are low levels of Parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH normally inhibits renal reabsorption of phosphate, and so without enough PTH there is more reabsorption of the phosphate. |
|
|
Term
Intracellular compartment
% body weight
|
|
Definition
% body weight: two thirds of body water & 40% body weight
Interstitial volume: 14%
Plasma volume:5 %
Transcellular volume: 1%
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
integral membrane proteins from a larger family of major intrinsic proteins (MIP) that form pores in the membrane ofbiological cells.
There are thirteen known types of aquaporins in mammals, and six of these are located in the kidney, but the existence of many more is suspected. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a partially permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane. It is also defined as the minimum pressure needed to nullify osmosis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a non-SI unit of measurement that defines the number of moles of ions that contribute to a solution's osmotic pressure. The term comes from the phenomenon of osmosis, and is typically used for osmotically active solutions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution (osmol/L or Osm/L). The osmolarity of a solution is usually expressed as Osm/L (pronounced "osmolar"), in the same way that the molarity of a solution is expressed as "M" (pronounced "molar"). Whereas molarity measures the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution, osmolarity measures the number of osmoles of solute particles per unit volume of solution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Osmolality is a variation of molality that only takes into account solutes that contribute to a solution's osmotic pressure. It is measured in osmoles of the solute per kilogram of water. This unit is frequently used in medical laboratory results in place of osmolarity, because it can be measured simply by depression of the freezing point of a solution, or cryoscopy
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium due to the force of gravity. A fluid in this condition is known as a hydrostatic fluid. The hydrostatic pressure can be determined from a control volume analysis of an infinitesimally small cube of fluid. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the net driving force which pushes fluid into tissue spaces and out of vascular sites; the net result between capillary osmotic pressure and intravascular hydrostatic pressure. |
|
|
Term
Explain the structures and renal regulation of the kidneys. explain where filtration, reabsorption and secretion occur within the kidney structure. |
|
Definition
Once inside the lumen of the nephron, small molecules, such as ions, glucose and amino acids, get reabsorbed from the filtrate:
- Specialized proteins called transporters are located on the membranes of the various cells of the nephron.
- These transporters grab the small molecules from the filtrate as it flows by them.
- Each transporter grabs only one or two types of molecules. For example, glucose is reabsorbed by a transporter that also grabs sodium.
- Transporters are concentrated in different parts of the nephron. For example, most of the Na transporters are located in the proximal tubule, while fewer ones are spread out through other segments.
- Some transporters require energy, usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (active transport), while others don't (passive transport).
- Water gets reabsorbed passively by osmosis in response to the buildup of reabsorbed Na in spaces between the cells that form the walls of the nephron.
- Other molecules get reabsorbed passively when they are caught up in the flow of water (solvent drag).
- Reabsorption of most substances is related to the reabsorption of Na, either directly, via sharing a transporter, or indirectly via solvent drag, which is set up by the reabsorption of Na.
[image]
major factors affect the reabsorption process:
- Concentration of small molecules in the filtrate - the higher the concentration, the more molecules can be reabsorbed. Like our children in the fish pond game, if you increase the number of fish in the stream, the children will have an easier time catching them. In the kidney, this is true only to a certain extent because: There is only a fixed number of transporters for a given molecule present in the nephron. There is a limit to how many molecules the transporters can grab in a given period of time.
- Rate of flow of the filtrate - flow rate affects the time available for the transporters to reabsorb molecules. As with our fish pond, if the stream moves by slowly, the children will have more time to catch fish than if the stream were moving faster.
To give you an idea of the quantity of reabsorption across the nephron, let's look at the sodium ion (Na) as an example:
- Proximal tubule - reabsorbs 65 percent of filtered Na. In addition, the proximal tubule passively reabsorbs about 2/3 of water and most other substances.
- Loop of Henle - reabsorbs 25 percent of filtered Na.
- Distal tubule - reabsorbs 8 percent of filtered Na.
- Collecting duct - reabsorbs the remaining 2 percent only if the hormone aldosterone is present
|
|
|
Term
Explain figure 8.5 in the text
|
|
Definition
Pc is capillary lumen hydrostatic pressure,
Pif is the interstitial hydrostatic pressure,
When Pc is greater then Pif filtration processes are dominate
When Pif is greater then Pc reabsorption processes are dominate
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Diffusion is one of several transport phenomena that occur in nature. A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it results in mixing or mass transport, without requiring bulk motion. Thus, diffusion should not be confused with convection, or advection, which are other transport mechanisms that utilize bulk motion to move particles from one place to another. In Latin, "diffundere" means "to spread out". It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a partially permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides. It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves, without input of energy, across a semipermeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations.Although osmosis does not require input of energy, it does use kinetic energy and can be made to do work.This effect can be countered by increasing the pressure of the hypertonic solution, with respect to the hypotonic. The osmotic pressure is defined to be the pressure required to maintain an equilibrium, with no net movement of solvent. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated transport) is a process of passive transport (as opposed to active transport), with this passive transport aided by integral membrane proteins. Facilitated diffusion is the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transmembrane integral proteins. The facilitated diffusion may occur either across biological membranes or through aqueous compartments of an organism. Polar molecules and charged ions are dissolved in water but they cannot diffuse freely across the plasma membrane due to the hydrophobic nature of the fatty acid tails of phospholipids that make up the lipid bilayers. Only small nonpolar molecules, such as oxygen can diffuse easily across the membrane. All polar molecules are transported across membranes by proteins that form transmembrane channels. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is the movement of a substance across a cell membrane against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration). In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient. Active transport uses cellular energy, unlike passive transport, which does not use cellular energy. Active transport is a good example of a process for which cells require energy. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sensory receptor primarily found in the hypothalamus of most homeothermic organisms that detects changes in osmotic pressure. Osmoreceptors can be found in several structures, including the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT) and the subfornical organ (SFO). They contribute to fluid balance in the body |
|
|
