Term
a. Neoplasia def.
b. Dysplasia def.
C. Anaplasia def. |
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Definition
a. abnormal proliferation of cells, growth of cells exceeds and is uncoordinated with normal surrounding cells
b. Increase in the number of immature cells with decrease in number of mature cells.
C. AKA "Dedifferentiation". Reversion of differentiated cells and loss of structural and functional differentiation. Common feature of malignant tumors. |
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Term
Changes in Cancer Cells
a. Fundamental Changes
b. Classical Changes
c. Membrane Changes |
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Definition
a. Self sufficiency w/ growth signals and insensitivity to growth inhibiting signals
b. Morphological Changes, decreased contact inhibition and anchorage dependence
c. Alterations in transport, surface enzymes, surface antigens |
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Term
Characteristics of Malignant Tumors
All 9 of them! |
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Definition
1. Anaplasia (Lack of differentiation)
2. Hyperchromatism
3. Abnormal (more) Mitosis
4. Pleomorphism (cells vary in size and shape)
5. Invasion of normal tissues
6. Seeding within body cavities
7. Rapid Growth
8. Lack of Encapsulation
9. Angiogenesis
** In histological slides, look for scattered giant cells, variation in size and shape, and anaplasia |
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Term
What does Carcinoma in situ mean?
What are?
CIN 2
CIN 3
What is HGSIL |
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Definition
Early form of carcinoma that hasn't invaded surrounding tissues
Both are classifications of neoplastic growths in epithelium
CIN 2 - atypical cells occupy between 1 and 2/3rds of thickness of epithelium
CIN 3 - atypical cells occupy more than 2/3rds.
High Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions - cancerous squamous cells with hyperchromatin, irregular shaped, enlarged |
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Term
a. Most common site of metastasis
b. Least common site of metastasis
c. High/Low |
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Definition
a. Lung
b. Diaphragm
c. High (Lung, lymph nodes, liver, bone) Low (Diaphragm, Skin, Intestine) |
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Term
a. Why is Angiogenesis an important indicator?
b. How do normal vessels differ from tumor? |
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Definition
a. Tumors produce factors capable of triggering all events in new capillary formation - This process is associated with and essential for tumor expansion.
b. Tumor vessels are more tortuous and irregularly shaped than normal vessels. |
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Term
3 Rules for Tumor Nomenclature
Exceptions(malignant):
Glioma -
Myeloma -
Leukemia -
Hepatoma -
Melanoma -
Lymphoma - |
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Definition
Rules:
1. Name is based on tissue of ORIGIN
2. Benign tumors end in "oma"
3. Malignant tumors start with malignant, and end in "sarcoma, carcinoma, blastoma"
Exceptions(malignant):
Glioma - Glial cells of NS
Myeloma - Plasma cells
Leukemia - WBC's
Hepatoma - Liver Cells
Melanoma - Skin cancer (melanocytes)
Lymphoma - Lymphatic Cells |
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Term
What is:
A. Invasion
B. Metastasis
C. Generally describe order of events |
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Definition
A. When a cell loses intercellular junctions and emigrates through the basement membrane into the ECM.
B. Metastasis is the process by which carcinogenic cells invade surrounding tissues
C. Carcinogenic cell clonally expand, travels through basement membrane, through ECM, into lymph nodes and blood supply (intravasation), interacts with lymphatic cells, migrates out of lymph (extravasation), attaches in new tissue (seeding) grows in other sites. |
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Term
Oncogenic Viruses
What stand for? Where do they invade?
HPV
HCV
HTLV
Epstein Barr |
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Definition
HPV - Human papilloma Virus - Cervix (Pap Smear)
HCV - Hepatitus C - Liver
HTLV - Human T-Cell Leukemia - Leukocytes
Epstein Barr - Burkitt Lymphoma and Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma |
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Term
Chemical Carcinogens
1. Name some common ones
2. Pathological steps |
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Definition
1. Tobacco, Aromatic Hydrocarbons, asbestos, nitrosamines
2. Dose dependent, lag between exposure and neoplasia, biggest factor on proliferating cells |
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Term
| Genes implicated in cancer (3 classes) |
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Definition
1. Oncogenes
2. Tumor Supressor Genes (Rb, p53) - mutation in both alleles required, two hit theory
3. DNA Repair Genes |
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Term
Carcinogenesis Model
(4 Steps) |
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Definition
1. Carcinogens (3 classes) cause mutations in genome
2. Two pathways either A. activation of growth-promoting oncogenes or B. Inactivation of cancer supressor genes
3. Expression of altered gene products and loss of regulatory products
4. Malignant Neoplasm |
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Term
Risk Factors and Initial Symptoms for Common Cancers
1. Lung
2. Breast
3. Colon
4. Cervix
5. Pancreas
6. Skin
7. Prostate |
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Definition
1. Smoking, Cough
2. Family History, Lumps
3. Family History, Blood in Stool
4. Sexual Activity/HPV, Vaginal Spotting
5. Pancreatitis
6. Sun exposure/fair skin, Skin lesion
7. Old age, Painful Urination |
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Term
Most common cancer in men and women
Highest mortality rate in men and women |
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Definition
Most common is prostate for men, breast for women
Highest mortality rate is lung cancer |
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Term
| Stages of Cancer (4) and why they are important? |
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Definition
1. Tumor within capsule
2. Tumor invades perinephric fat
3. Tumor invades lymph nodes
4. Tumor metastasizes
Depending on which stage you detect the cancer in, you have different treatment options. It affects where you can have a localized treatment (surgery) or systemic (chemotherapy) |
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Term
| Methods of cancer Treatment (4) |
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Definition
1. Surgery
2. Chemotherapy
3. Radiation Therapy
4. Hormonal Therapy |
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Term
| Oncogenes are activated by the following 4 mechanisms |
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Definition
1. Amplifications
2. Point mutations
3. Translocations
4. Overexpressions |
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Term
Random.
1. What is a tumor of glandular origin called?
2. What is a benign peripheral nerve tumor?
3. Most frequent cause of clinically palpable breast mass in adult woman?
4. Malignancy associated with chromosomal translocation?
5. Which neoplasm occurs primarily in the kidney
6. Which cancer can a blood serum screening serve as early detection |
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Definition
1. Adenoma
2. Neurofibroma
3. Fibrocystic disease
4. Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia
5. Wilm's Tumor
6. Prostate (PSA) |
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Term
Genetic Terms
1. Hereditary
2. Congenital
3. Acquired
4. Genotype
5. Phenotype
6. Heterozygous/Homozygous
7. Mosaic
8. Isochromosome
9. Heteroplasmy
10. Penetrance
11. Variable Expressivity
12. Pleiotropism |
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Definition
1. Hereditary - Transmitted from ones parents
2. Congenital - Present at birth
3. Acquired - changes to genetic component after birth
4. Genotype - full DNA profile
5. Phenotype - physically expressed DNA
6. Heterozygous/Homozygous - different/same genes at particular allele
7. Mosaic - two populations of cells with different genome within same individual
8. Isochromosome - one arm of chromosome lost and replaced by other chromosome's arm that is identical
9. Heteroplasmy - a cell that has mitochondria with some normal and some abnormal DNA
10. Penetrance - frequency of expression (of the people that have the gene for disease, what percent of those people express the disease)
11. Variable Expressivity - everyone that has the gene for disease expresses, but how they express varies
12. Pleiotropism - single gene defect affects many different tissues in single individual. |
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Term
Mendelian Disorders
(explain/examples)
1. Autosomal Dominant -
2. Autosomal Recessive -
3. X-linked dominant -
4. X-linked recessive - |
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Definition
1. Autosomal Dominant - Dominant gene on non-sex chromosomes, affected individual is heterozygous or homozygous but only need one copy for disease. Males and females equally affected and won't skip generation. For heterozygous 50% offspring inherit condition.
Huntington Disease
Marfan Syndrome
Hypercholesterolemia
Polycystic Kidney Disease
2. Autosomal Recessive - not sex-linked recessive so two copies of gene are required for disease to be expressed. Can skip generations because you can be a carrier. 1:2:1 inheritance for offspring.
Sickle Cell Anemia
Cystic Fibrosis
Tay-Sachs Disease
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Mucopolysaccharidosis
Glycogen Storage Disease
Galactosemia
3. X-linked dominant - males and females can be affected but since males have only one X chromosome, they are affected more because they don't have a dominant x chromosome to counteract. No male to male transmission because if you are a male and have a male, you donated your Y chromosome.
Muscular Dystrophy
Hemophilia
4. X-linked recessive - ONLY MALES AFFECTED! Females are carriers no male to male transmission. |
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Term
At the cellular level what do
1. Autosomal Dominant diseases affect?
2. Autosomal recessive diseases affect? |
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Definition
1. Major proteins, membrane structure, homeostasis
2. Enzymes of metabolic pathways, non-structural proteins |
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Term
| What is the Lyon Hypothesis? |
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Definition
| The Lyon Hypothesis states that early in embryonic development, one of the x chromosomes in a female becomes inactivated. Inactivation is random and once that has been determined all cells inherit the same inactivated X chromosome. |
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Term
Unique features of mitochondrial inheritance?
1. Inherited from?
2. Where do mitochondria come from?
3. Which tissues is it seen more in? |
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Definition
1. Maternal Inheritance
2. Mitochondria are in cytoplasm of oocyte that forms zygote
3. Displayed more in tissues that have high energy expenditure |
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Term
Imprinting Disorders... what are they?
What are some examples? |
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Definition
Disorders where expressivity differs depending on sex of parent whom you inherited the gene from. For example, you must get gene 1 from parent X if you get gene 1 from parent Y no disorder occurs.
Prader-Willi Syndrome and Angelman Syndrome |
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Term
Multifactorial Inheritance
1. Explain
2. Examples |
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Definition
1. Traits result from interplay for multiple environmental factors and multiple genes
2. Cleft Lip, Dental Caries, Periodontal Disease |
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Term
Somatic Genetic Disease
1. What is it?
2. Examples |
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Definition
1. Somatic genetic disease causes cancers, they are due to somatic mutations not in germ cells. The mutant cells have a proliferative advantage.
2. Retinoblastoma, Gorlin Syndrome |
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Term
1.What is cytogenetics?
2. When examined?
3. P? Q?
4. Metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric |
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Definition
1. Study of chromosomes, structure and inheritance
2. Examined during mitotic phase and occasionally during interphase.
3. P is short arm or petite arm. Q is long arm.
4. Named based on the length of their short-arm. Metacentric is longest, submetacentric is medium, acrocentric is shortest and has satellites that encode rRNA. |
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Term
What are some changes to chromosomes (cytogenetic) seen in cancer?
What is aneuploidy? |
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Definition
1. Non-random abberations can be useful for diagnosis and prognosis
2. Abberatiosn can be
a. numerical
-Gains
-losses
- trisomy, monosomy
b. structural
- Translocations
- Instability-increased breakage
- Inversion
c. Constitutional
- present in all cells of the body unless mosaic - mosaic is due to mitotic error post fertilization
D. Acquired
- not inherited - usually found in only one tissue
- tumors and cancers
Aneuploidy - abnormal chromosome number due to extra or missing chromosomes |
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Term
Down Syndrome
1. What is it?
2. What are the 3 main causes?
3. What are some risk factors? |
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Definition
1. Trisomy is the inheritance of an extra 21st chromosome
2. There are 3 main causes
a. nondisjunction
b. Robertsonian translocation
c. Mosaicism
3. AMA - advanced maternal age |
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Term
| As you age, bodily functions decline specifically due to these 5 things |
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Definition
1. Hormone levels decrease
2. Wound healing decreases
3. Accumulation of DNA damage
4. Accumulation of abnormal proteins
5. Reactive Oxygen Species |
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Term
Werner's Syndrome
1. What does it cause?
2. Pathology
3. What type of disease
4. What is the other disease that causes premature aging? What gene is mutated? |
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Definition
1. Premature aging
2. Mutation in WRN gene causes abnormal DNA and RNA helicase proteins. Since helicase proteins are involved in repair of DNA, rapid aging results.
3. Autosomal recessive
4. Progeria, mutation in gene that codes for lamin A. |
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Term
What are two causes of Alzheimers?
What happens to neurons in alzheimers? |
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Definition
1. Deposition of plaques that cause inflamed nerves. These plaques contain beta amyloid protein.
2. Hyperphosphorylated Tau protein that is associate with microtubules and causes neurofibrillary tangles
This ultimately results in miscommunication between neurons and their death. |
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Term
1. What is osteoarthritis?
2. What is Osteoporosis |
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Definition
1. Wear and Tear arthritis
2. Osteoporosis - porous bones. Results from osteoclasts breaking down bone faster than osteoblasts remove it. |
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Term
A. What are the 3 features of age-related cataract?
B. What contributes?
C. What controls (2)? |
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Definition
A.
1. Disarrangement of lens fibers
2. Presence of altered lens proteins
3. Un-dissolved epithelial lens contents
B. 1. Reactive Oxygen Species -
C. 2. Reduced caloric intake, and reduce IGF-1 |
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Term
| 3 Factors that determine the amount of DNA damage that accumulates as you age |
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Definition
1. Environmental factors
2. Individual susceptibility
3. Effectiveness of Repair |
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Term
Senescence definition
4 Causes of Cell Senescence |
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Definition
Inability to replicate
1. Innapropriate cell messages
2. Telomere shortening
3. DNA damage
4. Cellular oxidation |
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Term
| What is intercurrent disease? |
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Definition
| Disease that intervenes during the course of another disease. AIDS, pneumonia |
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Term
High output of ROS leads to?
Opening of mitochondrial pores leads to? |
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Definition
ROS - mutations/DNA damage
Pores - cell apoptosis |
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Term
What is a telomere?
What happens to them as you age? |
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Definition
Telomere is a protective strand of bases on the end of your chromosomes.
They shorten with each cell division, and so as you age they get shorter. |
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Term
| What are the 6 factors that affect lifespan? |
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Definition
1. Stress - higher is bad
2. Body size - smaller is better less IGF-1
3. Immune capacity - decreases as you age
4. Genetics - affect DNA repair, caner
5. Environmental factors - radiation, asbestos
6. Obesity |
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