Action Potential 

abrupt and pulse like changes in the membrane potential that are propagated along a nerve or muscle fiber. 

resting membrane potential 

accumulation of ions on surface of membrane 

endocytosis 

process by which cells engulf materials from their surroundings 

exocytosis

mechanism for the secretion of intracellular substances into extracellular spaces 

pinocytosis 

ingestion of small solid or fluid particles 

osmosis 

passive movement of water between a semipermable membrane to from an area of higher to lower concentration 

diffusion 

process by which molecules in a solution becomes widely dispersed and reach a uniform concentration

(passive) 

passive movement 

movement that does not require energy

(diffusion, osmosis) 

active transport 

when cells use energy to move ions against an electrical or chemical gradient 

aerobic metabolism 

occurs in mitochondria and requires oxygen

potential problems:  build up of lactic acid can lead to cell death by an increase in pH 

anareobic metabolism 

no oxygen is needed, glycolysis occurs to supply cells with energy to survive if oxygen is not available- can not live on glycolysis for very long 

nucleus 

the control center of the cell- contains DNA and RNA

PP:  mutations or damaged DNA can lead to incorrect or no protein production for the cell

ribosomes 

protein synthesis, usually attached to ER

PP- defective or no protein production 

Endoplasmic Reticulum  

Tubular communication system and home for ribosomes (rough ER) and enzymes (smooth ER)

PP- defective or no protein production, lack of enzymes can lead to metabolic problems 

Golgi Complex 

packages and transports proteins

PP- proteins sent to the wrong area can create disturbances as can lack of protein in the correct area

Lysosomes 

digestive system of the cell

PP- build up of waste within the cell, gets into bloodstream and can destroy needed blood products

Tay Sachs disease 

Peroxisomes  

smaller than lysosomes, contains special enzyme that degrades peroxides, free radicals

PP- build up of free radicals in cells, can be fatal 

Mitochondria 

Power plant of the cell, creates energy from food with oxygen (cellular respiration)

PP- lack of oxygen leads to lack of energy production so the cell can not function, ultimately leads to cell death 

free radicals 

reactive chemical species that can injure tissue 

hypoxia 

lack of oxygen in the body 

hyperplasia 

enlargement of organ or tissue because of an abnormal increase in the number of cells 

Hypertrophy 

a general increase in the bulk of a part or organ due to an increase in the size, but not the number or cells in the tissues 

antioxidant  

Any substance that reduces oxidative damage (damage due to oxygen) such as that caused by free radicals

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 

currency of energy 

atrophy  

the wearing away of tissues or structures caused by pathology or long periods of disuse 

cell membrane/plasma membrane 

has own body antigens, semipermiable, proteins for active transport, and holds cell together

PP- foriegn body subtances may be able to get in, body might recognize as a foriegn antigen and autoimmune disease may occur 

metaplasia 

a reversible change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type 

dysplasia 

characterized by deranged cell growth of a specific tissue that results in cells that vary in size, shape, and organization 

repolarization 

involves reestablishment of the resting membrane potential.  Involves the outward flow of electrical charges and return of membrane potential to its resting state. 

depolarization 

occurs when cell membrane suddenly becomes selectively permable to current-carrying ions such as sodium.  sodium ions enter cell and result in a sharp rise of the intracellular potential to positivity. 

Sodium- Potassium Pump 

moves sodium from inside the cell to the extracellular region and returns potassium into the cell.  Requires the use of engergy. 

alleles 

alternate forms of a gene at the same locus 

gene 

the unit of heredity 

nucleotide 

composed of phosphoric acid, deoxiribose, and one of four nitrogenous bases.  DNA is composed of nucleotides. 

Codon 

A triplet code used in transmitting the genetic info needed for protein synthesis 

chromosomes 

intracellular structures that organize, store, and retrieve most genetic information 

autosome 

chromosomes that are alike in both males and females.  22 of the 23 chromosomes are autosomes. 

cachexia 

excessive weight loss 

mutation 

accidental errors in duplication of DNA 

anemia 

low levels of RBCs in the blood 

homozygotes 

when two alleles in a given pair are the same 

heterozygote 

when two alleles of a given pair are different 

Meiosis 

replicates germ cells and takes place only once in a cell life.  Produces gametes and reproductive cells. 

Germ Cells 

The germ cells in male and female humans are gametes, the sperm and ova respectively, along with the gonocytes

mitosis 

the process by which a cell duplicates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus, in order to generate two, identical, daughter nuclei. 

Autosomal Dominant Disorder 

Only one mutated copy of the gene will be necessary for a person to be affected 

Autosomal recessive disorder 

Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be affected 

Mendel's Laws

the units of inheritance are genes and the single gene expression can easily be predicted.

Down Syndrome 

Trisomy 21- a third chromosome on 21

causes birth defects including mental retardation, characteristic facial features, and other health problems. 

monosomy 

presence of only one member of the chromosome pair 

cytokine 

signaling molecules secreted on recognition of an antigen 

antigen 

substances foriegn to the host that stimulates an immune response 

Differentiation 

cells develop specialized structures/ functions 

Cancer 

tissue growth expands more than necessary, has no purpose, and grows at the expense of the host 

benign 

only proliferation is abnormal, does not spread, rarely causes death, and is local 

Metastasis 

when an abnormal cell travels and spreads in another part of the body 

cell cycle 

4 phases:

G1- preparing to divide, protien, RNA, and organelle synthesis

S- synthesis phase.  DNA synthesis occurs and two separate sets of chromosomes are made (46 in each set) one for each daughter cell

G2- continued protein and RNA synthesis

M- cell division/mitosis occurs

G0- resting phase, not considered part of the cycle 

sex linked disorder 

defective gene in sex chromosome 

sex chromosome 

23 set, consists of XX or XY 

single gene disorders 

defective gene in chromosome, ex is sex linked disorders 

tumor angiogenisis disorder 

when tumor begins to develop it's own blood supply 

proliferation 

cells multiplying 

malignant 

can invade and destroy nearby tissue and that may spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body.

stem cells 

cells found in most multi-cellular organisms. They are capable of retaining the ability to reinvigorate themselves through mitotic cell division and can differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types.

somatic cells 

cells other than germ cells 

ectropic hormone production 

The secretion of hormones by nonendocrine tissue. Ectopically produced hormones may arise from both benign and malignant tissues.

nondisjunction 

the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during cell division

PSA 

Prostate specific antigen

a protein produced by the cells of the prostate gland. 

Can be measured in the blood (presence may indicate a problem) 

CEA 

carcinoembryonic antigen

can measure the amount of this protein that may appear in the blood of some people who have certain kinds of cancers, especially large intestine cancer. It may also be present in people with cancer of the pancreas, breast, ovary, or lung.

ABO Blood groups 

antigens found on the surface of RBCs.  have reciprocal antibodies found in the serum (except for group AB) 

anemia 

lack of RBCs 

aplastic anemia 

anemia caused by a disorder of the hematopoietic stem cells (bone marrow failure) 

B lymphocytes 

Involved in acquired immunity- become antibody-producing plasma cells -> humoral immunity 

bands 

immature neutrophils- named for it's horseshoe shaped nuclei 

segs 

segmented neutrophils 

neutrophils with nuclei that are divided up into three to five lobes.  aka polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs)  

 basophils 

a type of granulocyte involved in allergic responses 

biliruben 

the pigment of bile, converted from heme released during RBC phagocytosis 

coagulation 

blood clotting 

coagulation factors/clotting factors 

development of fibrin clot to stablize platelet plug 

disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) 

disorder related to massive activation of coagulation pathways leading to consumption of coagulation factors and platelets.  Creates blood coagulation and bleeding at the same time.

eosinophils 

a type of granulocyte that increases during allergic reations and parasitic infections. 

granulocytes 

WBCs- includes neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils 

neutrophils 

a type of granulocyte.  polymorphonuclear leukocytes: function as phagocytes, defend against pathogens and foreign substances (mature called segs and immature called bands). 

monocytes/macrophages 

monocytes while circulating in the blood and macrophages once they enter the tissues.  function as phagocytes. 

T lymphocytes 

involved in aquired immunity- cell mediated immunity 

neutropenia 

a decreased number of neutrophils 

leukemia 

two types: lymphocytic and myelocytic

lymphocytic affects lymphocytes and their progenitor cells

myelocytic involves myeloid stem cells, so interferes with more types of blood cells

acute/chronic   

hemostasis 

stopping of blood flow (clotting)

has five stages:

1. vessel spasm

2. formation of platelet plug

3. blood coagulation

4.  clot retraction

5.  clot dissolution 

erythrocyte 

RBCs

transports O2 to tissue by protein hemoglobin.  

Heme unit contains iron that binds O2

PP- nutritional deficiencies: lacking iron can decrease Hgb production

cobalamin (B12) and folic acid needed for DNA synthesis (usualy problem of malabsorbtion) 

erythropoietin 

released by kidneys when hypoxia occurs that stimulates bone marrow to make RBCs. 

extrinsic coagulation pathway 

activates blood coagulation when tissues are injured. 

intrinsic coagulation pathway 

activates coagulation when blood vessels are injured. 

fibrin 

a protein involved in blood clotting- creates a mesh that stablizes the platelet plug. 

fibrinolysis 

clot dissolution- allows blood flow to be reestablished leading to tissue healing.

PP- liver disease:  many coagulation factors made in the liver.

Vit K deficiency

Heredity disorders 

hematopoiesis 

the making of cells 

hemoglobin 

oxygen-carrying protein

composed of heme unit that binds to O2 and polypeptide chains. 

hemolysis 

the destruction of RBCs 

Hemophilia A 

a decrease in factor VIII (bleeding disorder) 

hypochromic 

pale RBCs, usually caused by a decrease in Hgb 

Rh blood antigens 

divided into Rh positive and Rh negative- determined by presence/absence or Rh group antigens.  Rh- neg people only develop antibodies if exposed to Rh positive blood. 

shift to the left 

an increase of immature neutrophils in the blood 

intrinsic factor 

a glycoprotein produced by the parietal cells of the stomach. It is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B₁₂ later on in the terminal ileum.

jaundice 

an increase of biliruben in the blood due to breakdown of RBCs

seen as yellowing of skin or mucous membrane and sclera of eyes 

leukocytes 

WBCs

protects against infection and mediates inflammatory responses 

macrocytic 

large cell

could be caused by a cobalamin (B12) or folic acid deficiency needed for DNA synthesis 

microcytic 

small cell

could be caused by an iron deficiency 

petechia 

little bruises 

polycythemia 

disorder where the body produces too many RBCs making the blood viscous.  Increases clot risks.

purpura 

bruises 

reticulocytes 

immature red blood cells 

spleenomegaly 

an increase in size of the spleen because platelets are being sequestered.   

Thrombocytes 

platelets

produced in bone marrow, stored in the spleen before being released into the blood stream.  plays important role in hemostasis. 

thrombocytopneia 

a decrease in numbers of thrombocytes

can be seen as bruising, petechia, nose bleeds, bleeding from gums, heavy menstrual flow, GI bleeds, breakthru bleeding 

thrombosis 

blood clots attached to interior wall of the vein or artery

viscosity 

thickness