Term
Compare and contrast beinign
and malignant tumours |
|
Definition
Benign: well differentiated cells, slow growth, encapsulated, usually one tumour
Malignant: very poorly differentiated cells, rapid growth, not encapsulated, invasive and radiating growth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thrombus: an obstruction attached to the inside wall of an artery/vein. (stuck clot) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Embolus: forein object which circulates in the bloodstream until it becomes lodged in a vessel. (a floating clot) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thromboembolus: a thrombus that has detatched from the vessel wall which then becomes and embolus |
|
|
Term
| How can a thromoembolus effect circulation? |
|
Definition
| It blocks blood flow, causing ischaemia and hypoxia. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the importance of venous return in ensuring adequate oxygen is delived to the tissue. |
|
Definition
| Adequate arterial flow requires removal of deoxygenated blood as veins are responsible for the removal of deoxygenated blood |
|
|
Term
| Define true and false aneurysms and provide examples. |
|
Definition
True aneurysms: stretching of all three layers of the arterial wall (innermost: tunica intima, middle: tunica meida, outermost: tunica externa)
Examples include; circumferential aneurysm and saccular aneurysm
False aneurysms: do not involve the stretching of all three layers of the aterial wall.
Examples include;dissecting aneurysm and pseudoaneurysm |
|
|
Term
| Discuss the causes and consequences of deep vein thrombosis (DVT). |
|
Definition
| DVT is formed by thrombi formation within the deep veins which is usually formed from immobility. |
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|
Term
| Describe the differnce between primary and secondary hypertension |
|
Definition
Primary: no known cause
Secondary: cause is known e.g kidney disease |
|
|
Term
| Explain why hypertension is considered dangerous |
|
Definition
| Incresed risk of heart failureas the heart is under more pressure and hypertension increases the afterload which eventually casue the heart to undergo hypertrophy |
|
|
Term
| What is the definition of ischaemic heart disease? |
|
Definition
| Impaired funciton/damage to the cardic muscle by reduction of blood supply |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pain associated with ischaemia |
|
|
Term
| Compare and contrast L) and R) heart failure |
|
Definition
Compare: both cause heart failure and insuffient blood supply
L): causes pulmonary odema
R): causes accummulation of fluid in the vena carva and other veins leading to the heart from the body |
|
|
Term
| How can artheroscerclerosis impact on the heart? |
|
Definition
| Slow blood flow and increase afterload and increase peripheral resistance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium
-caused by viruses
or bacterial infections |
|
|
Term
| What is a myocardial infarction and what are the consequences? |
|
Definition
Death of myocardial cells which leads to heart failure
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Define hypoxaemia and hypoxia |
|
Definition
Hypoxaemia: low O2 in blood
Hypoxia: low O2 in body tisses |
|
|
Term
| Explain common symptoms of respiratory disease |
|
Definition
| Dysphea, coughing, haemopypis, clubbing of digits |
|
|
Term
| Describe obstructive pulmonary disorders |
|
Definition
Emphysema: break down/scarring of the walls of the alveoli which interferes with sufficient gas exchange
Asthma: obstruction of airflow due to widespread reversible narrowing of the airways
Bronchitis: inflammation of the inner lining of the bronchi |
|
|
Term
| What is one common complication of obstructive lung disease? |
|
Definition
Pulmonary hypertension: high BP in pulmonary artery due to capilleries of alveoli in diseased lung become scarred. Increased blood flow resistance through the lung so BP and afterload increase in the pulmonary artery. RV (right ventricle) must overcome afterload to pump blood through the lungs so it undergoes hypertrophy, outgrows coronary blood supply and eventually fails (right heart failure)
(Any of what is said above counts) |
|
|
Term
| Define and describe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) |
|
Definition
| Life threatening general inflammation ofh te lungs. Occurs following damage to the lung from severe infection, near drowing, smoke, noxious gases, inhalation of radiation therapy. One or more of these stimulates a massive inflammation response within the lungs, causing fluid (+WBC) to leak into the alveoli. Lead to impairment of gas exchange up to 72hrs later, progress sto the irreversible scarring of the lung. There are three stages; inflammorty stage, proliferative phase and fibrotic phase. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the inflammatory stage of ARDS |
|
Definition
occurs within 72hours after initial insult to the lung.
widespread inflammation of alveoli, leakage of fluid from alveolar capillaries into the alveoli. Severely reduces gas exchange. WBC move into the alvoli. Symptoms of hypercapnia arise. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the proliferative phase in ARDS |
|
Definition
occurs 4-21 days after initial insult.
inflammation greatly reduced, fluid-filled alveoli are replaced by granular tissue which is an example of the repair process. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the fibrotic phase of ARDS |
|
Definition
occurs 14-21 days after inital insult.
'repair' process continues. Tissue of the lung becomes irreversibly scarred so the lung becomes inspired air.
by this stage the person has acute respiratory failure. |
|
|
Term
| Compare and contrast open and spontaneous pneumothorax |
|
Definition
Open: opening in the chest wall prevents presure changes in the thoraic cavity occuring, lung remains collapsed
Spontaneous: opening spontaneously develops between the airway and thoracic cavity. Any movement of hte chest wall or diaphragm does not result in lung exansion as the air is able to pass directly from the airway into the thoracic cavity. |
|
|
Term
| Describe three (3) conditions caused by postoperative respiratory damage |
|
Definition
1) Absorption atelectasis: alveoli may be blocked with mucus leading to alveoli collapsing.
2) Aspiration: entry of fluid/solid particles inot hte lung. Large particles may block major airways and fluid causes inflammation. Bacterial pneumonia may also occur.
3) Pneumothorax: presence of air or gas in the thorax. |
|
|
Term
| Describe 2 ways our body gains and loses salts |
|
Definition
Gain: enters the body in food and water
Losses: sweat, urine and faeces |
|
|
Term
| Define hyperkalemia and explain the concequences |
|
Definition
High potassium levels in blood and extracellular fluid.
Exess K+will be transported inot the nerve cells making them more positive. Resting potential will increase and become closer to the theshold.
This can grossly increase heart rate and cause uncontrolled muscular acitivity, eventually leading to paralysis. |
|
|
Term
| Define hypokalemia and explain the concequences |
|
Definition
Low potassium levels in blood and intracellular fluid.
This will reduce the amount in nerve cells. Reduction in the number of positively chargedions inside the cell recduces the resting potential.
This may lead to paralysis and a slow irregular heart beat or even cardiac arrest. |
|
|
Term
| Why is washout so important? |
|
Definition
| To decrease the risk of getting bacterial infections |
|
|
Term
| What are common causes of obstruction of the urinary tract? |
|
Definition
-Infection and inflammation to the kidneys. Reduced urine flow may be due to kidney stones, hypertrophy ofthe prostate in males, neoplasms of the urethra or ureters and decreased nerve impulses to the bladder.
-Increased pressure upon the kidneys |
|
|
Term
| Define renal insufficency |
|
Definition
| Renal function has declined to 25% of normal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| occurs when there is less than 10% of renal function remaining |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where the damage has exposed the brain to the external environment (e.g. gunshot wound) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The brain is not exposed (e.g. jarring of the brain when a person falls and hits their head) |
|
|
Term
| What are the consequences of traumatic head injuries? |
|
Definition
-May cause severe brain damage which can result in bleeding btween the dura mater and the skull (extradural) or the dura mater and the brain (subdural) or within the cerebrum (intracerebral).
-Cerebral haemorrhage can interfere with functioning of the brain due to a reduction in blood supply.
-No haemorrhage, trauma such as shaking or jarring can cause the tissues of the brain to become inflammed and take up fluid; resulting in cerebral odema. |
|
|
Term
| Define meningitis/encephalitis |
|
Definition
| Inflammation of the meninges and the brain respectively. Both can cause life threatening damage to the brain tissue as they both cause cerebral odema. Infections are also frequent in both conditions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Swelling of the cells of the brain. This increases the pressure within the cranial cavity and can damage the nervous tissue. Cells of the brain also swell in response to infection or mechenical damage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Both thrombotic and embolic strokes block arteries and arteriols which cause a reduction in blood supply to the brain which in turn makes the person lose colour, looking pale. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Haemorrhagic strokes bleed into the brain |
|
|
Term
| Compare and contrast Guillain-Barre syndrome and multiple sclerosis |
|
Definition
Guillain-Barre syndrome: acute autoimmune condition which causes the distruction of the myelin around the peripheral nerves. Loss of myelin interferes with transmission of messages and this can cause acute motor paralysis (including the inability to breathe)
Multiple sclerosis: chronic and progressive autoimmune condition which causes loss of myelin surrounding nerves within the central nervous system. Loss of myelin interferes with transmission via sensory and motor nerves which is why symptoms include burning or tingling sensations of the skin, muscle weakness and paralysis. |
|
|
Term
| Explain why the condition of blood in the faeces may suggest the site of the bleeding |
|
Definition
| Haemotochezia (fresh blood) indicates that there may be a bleed in the lower part of the digestive tract as it has not been digested but if a person has a fast rate of passage the fresh blood may have originated anywhere within the digestive tract; however, melena (dark, digested blood) suggests that the bleed may be in the upper part of the digestive tract as the digestive enzymses have tried to break it down. |
|
|
Term
| Compare 'sliding' and 'rolling' hiatal hernia |
|
Definition
Sliding: this is where the stomach immediately inferior to the oesophagus simply protudes. (This is very common)
Rolling: involves protusion of another part ofhte stomach through the diaphragm. |
|
|
Term
| Name and describe two (2) disorders of the small intestine |
|
Definition
1) Crohn disease- inflammation of any part of the gastroinestinal tract but most common site is the small intestine. The inflammation may lead to scarring and obstruction. Symptoms may be classified as 'irritable bowel'. It has been found that recessive gene is responsible for this disease.
2) Intestinal obstruction- caused by torsion (twisting) of the intestine, growth of tumours, scarring or foreign bodies that have been swallowed. Symptoms include intermittent pain, followed by vomiting. |
|
|
Term
| Name and describe two (2) disorders of the large intestine |
|
Definition
1) Diverticulosis- formation of blind sacs in the large intestine. Most of which occur in the sigmoid colon. Hypertrophy of the intestinal wall and an increase in pressure can result in the contents of the large intestine herniating through the wall to form these blind pockets.
2) Appendicitis- a naturally occuring blind pocket within the appendix which then becomes infected and inflammed. |
|
|
Term
| Define hepatitis and what are the consequences? |
|
Definition
| Inflammatory disorders of the liver caused by viruses that replicate themselves within the liver cells. Results in the remaining liver cells having reduced function so that billirubin levels build up in the bloodstream. Following inflammation, cells and ductwork may be replaced by scar tissue. |
|
|
Term
| What is the common cause of dysfunction of the endocrine system? |
|
Definition
| Hypersecreation or hyposecreation of hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Low amounts of they thyroid hormone. |
|
|
Term
| Causes and symptoms of hypothyroidism |
|
Definition
- Can be present from birth or may occur in adulthood. As this hormone is responsible for the development of the brain, hypothyroidism can result in mental retardation.
Causes:- low metabolic rate which means the cells will not be breaking down glucose quickly resulting the supply of ATP to be limited.
-lack of iodine, which is necessary for thyroid hormone production.
Symptoms: fatigue, slow pulse, cold intolerance and weight gain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Too much thyroid hormone which results in a hypermetabolic state. |
|
|
Term
| Causes and symptoms of hyperthyroidism |
|
Definition
Cause: tumour ofthe thyroid that secretes large amounts of thyroxine.
Symptoms: high metabolic rate, intolerant to heat, rapid pulse and lose weight. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Destruction of the adrenal cortex, resulting in hyposecreation of cortisol and aldosterone. Adrenal cells are often destroyed by the immune system. |
|
|
Term
| Define Cushing's syndrome |
|
Definition
| Excess of cortisol. Usuall caused by a tumour thats within the adrenal cortex as it secretes excess cortisol. |
|
|
Term
| Define a complete bone fracture |
|
Definition
| the bone is broken all the way through |
|
|
Term
| Define an incomplete bone fracture |
|
Definition
| the bone is damaged but still in one piece |
|
|
Term
| Define dislocation/luxation and subluxation |
|
Definition
Dislocation/luxation: where there is an abnormal and complete separation of the bones within a joint.
Subluxation: partial dislocation, articulating surfaces of the joint are only partially separated.
Both cause damage to the tendons, ligaments and muscles surrounding the affected joint. |
|
|
Term
| Define tendonitis and list two (2) common causes |
|
Definition
Inflammation of the tendons, this inflammation is accompanied by swelling, pain and restricted movement.
Causes: overuse injuries or acute trauma such as a fall. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| softening and loss of the articular cartilage, causing cartilaginous surfaces to become rough and pitted. This is usually caused by 'wear and tear'. Eventually the cartilage completely degenerate which results in exposure and erosion of the underlying bone. New bone 'spurs' may form causing stiffness, pain and reduced movement. |
|
|
Term
| Define rheumatoid arthritis |
|
Definition
This is an inflammatory disorder casued by the dysfunction of the immune system.
A tissue called 'pannus' grows out from the synovial membrane and erodes teh cartilage and bone, eventually the pannus tissue may bridge the gap between the bones which will grossly reduce mobility. |
|
|
Term
| Name the 5 layers of the epidermis |
|
Definition
| Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum and stratum corneum |
|
|
Term
| Name 3 neoplasms of the skin |
|
Definition
1) Basal cell carcinoma- generally a benign tumour, usually only occurs on sun exposed surfaces.
2) Squamous cell carcinoma- malignant tumour, often metastasises to nearby lymph nodes. this is commonly found on sun exposed surfaces.
3) Malignant melanoma - malignant tumour on the first layer of skin, stratum basale. metastasises rapidly. |
|
|
Term
| What are the complications associated with burns? |
|
Definition
| Increased risk of infection, temperature regulation, fluid loss, shock and electrolyte imbalances. |
|
|
Term
| What are the differences between first, second and third degree burns? |
|
Definition
First degree: only affect part or all of the epidermis and heal within a few days and do not ususally scar
Second degree: affect all of the epidermis and part or all of the dermis and they take longer to heal depending on the thickness ofthe dermis destroyed. If there is a large burnt area a skin graft will be required
Third degree: affects all of the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. this depth of burn will not usually heal over resulting in requiring a skin graft. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The implantation of a fertilised ovm outside the uterus. Occurs in the oviduct. The oviduct is not elastic so it cannot expand which cannot accommodate for the growing foetus and may rupture. |
|
|
Term
| Define primary and secondary amenorrhea |
|
Definition
Primary:the failure to start menstruating by the age of 15 ususally caused by hyposecretion of ovarian or pituritary hormones.
Secondary: absence of menses for the duration of threee or more succesive menstrual cycles in a person who had normal cycles. May be caused by hormonal dysfunction, infeciton, reduced food intake or excessive physical activity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Occurrence of functioning uterine tissue outside the uterus. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the development and progression of cervical cancer. |
|
Definition
Pre-cancerous cells are called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) occurs where some of the normal cells of the cervix are replaced by atypical dysplastic cells.
They are graded as:
CIN1- Mild dysplasia
CIN2- Moderate dysplasia
CIN3- Severe dysplasia
The development of dysplasia is usually quite slow during CIN1-3 but after that he cancer can undergo rapid metastasis. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the detection and treatment of cervical cancer |
|
Definition
Diagnosis is done by a Papanicolaou (Pap) smear. The cervix naturally sheds cells and a smear sample of these is examined for signs of dysplasia.
Treatment: Cases detected early (within CIN1-3) can have 100% cure rate by surgical excision or laser destruction/radiation of the abnormal cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Failure of a testies or testes to decend fro mthe abdominal cavity to the scrotum. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inflammation of the testis. Common cause is the mumps virus. |
|
|
Term
| Define testicular torsion (twisted testis) |
|
Definition
| Occurs when the testis rotates, twisting off the bood flow in the testicular artery and veins. This greatly reduces and even stops blood flow to the testis. If left untreated the testis will die and have to be removed. |
|
|
Term
| Explain why the enlargement of the prostate can interfere with the voiding of urine |
|
Definition
| The prostate gland is placed to constrict the urethra and therefore interfere with the elimination of urine. However if the prostate glad is enlarged it will make it almost impossible for the person to pass urine as its already constricting the flow of urine which in turn will have a negative impact on the kidneys as the body is still getting rid of the waste products and the kidneys are still filtering the urine however if urine cannot be voided this will back up and put excess pressure on the bladder and the kidneys. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Impossible to focus on close objects (e.g. reading) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Is when the pressure inside the eye is greater than 21mm Hg. Increased pressure compresses arteriols and capillaries and therefore reduces the delivery of oxygenated blood to the eye. It can also compress the retina and optic nerve resulting in progression of vision loss. |
|
|
Term
| Compare and contrast open and narrow angle glaucoma |
|
Definition
Narrow angle: caused by the anterior chaber being so narrow taht outflow of aqueous humour is impeded.
Open angle: occurs through the anterior chamber is of normal depth. The outflow of aqueous humour is prevented by a blockage of Schlemm's canal |
|
|
Term
| Name two (2) disorders of the semicircular canals |
|
Definition
1) the effects of inflammation: may be caused by certain medicatons or allergies
2) Motion sickness: constant stimulation of the cells within the canals due to repeated rocking movements. |
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