THE NEED FOR PARENTING EDUCATION

• Currently, no state or federal statute requires individuals to have training to become parents other than for special circumstances (e.g., foster parents). 

• Is it feasible to license parents?

• Current guidelines for parenting vary due to research findings and understandings of contemporary parenting.
• Parenthood is developmental; it changes over time.

CONCEPTS OF PARENTING

• Originally, parenthood referred to sexual reproduction.
• In the past, parents were seen as a child’s primary teacher. Now, this job is left to schools and other agencies. 
• Parents continue to be held responsible for nurturing, teaching, and acting as guardians, collectively called socialization.

• Infants do not have fully developed brains at birth and depend on adults for protection. 
• Parents are held directly responsible for their children from infancy until children reach the age of legal maturity. 

HISTORICAL CHANGES IN
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONS

• Current ideas about parenting evolved from past beliefs.
• Views of parenting and childhood were very different historically.
• Current cultural values strive towards:
• Well-being of children;
• Healthy social institutions (e.g., family, school, social service agencies)
• Child centered society
• Childhood ideally a carefree and sheltered time
• Children's needs ideally first met by the family.
• Currently adults define childhood differently and strive to treat children in a developmentally appropriate manner.

High threat of death forced parents to:

• Invest heavily in parent-child bonds (physical caretaking) to increase odds of survival and chances of carrying on family lineage.
• Somewhat disinvest emotionally and resign to inevitable threats. 

Ancient Greece and Rome

• Only recognized two stages of lifespan: childhood (birth to five- to seven-years-old) and adulthood (five- to seven-years-old to death)
• Shorter average lifespan; many people died in 30s or 40s
• Common child sacrifices, infanticide, and slavery
• Deformed or weak infants could be drowned or suffocated

• Parents responsible for teaching children basic knowledge
• Formal education restricted to males
• Family as core unit:
• Father as family leader
• Mother as child’s first teacher

Middle Ages (400-1400)

• Minimal formal education
• Extended family structures with agrarian lifestyles
• No concept of need for infant-caregiver trust
• Parents focused on physical needs rather than on emotional ties; parents did not provide warmth or nurture
• Children perceived as miniature adults

Renaissance (1400-1600)

• Adult centered society (e.g., idea of Renaissance man)
• Various pieces of art led to changing attitudes about childhood and infancy (idealized images of children) 
• By the late 1500s, childrearing advice gained popularity

Colonial America: 1600-1800

• Children were seen as inherently sinful and evil; play considered a sin
• Parents held themselves responsible for bringing children to religious salvation or conversion
• Children taught to always obey parents without question
• Unidirectional model of parent-child relations
• Heavy emphasis on:
• Religious matters
• Harsh disciplinary methods
• Parents as having total authority

Nineteenth Century

• Three major philosophies or approaches to childrearing 
• Calvinism:
• Harsh physical punishment and strict moral instruction
• Strong, authoritarian childrearing style

• Environmentalism:
• Tabula rasa theory – children seen as blank slates at birth
• Cause-and-effect view of parenting

• Early developmentalism:
• Meeting children’s developmental needs
• Parents’ role in shaping children’s personalities
• Better understanding of effects of neglect and harsh punishment and gentle care and nurture on development

Twentieth Century and Current Trends

•  Physical punishment beginning to be frowned upon
•  Fathers encouraged to play more active role
•  New awareness of equal rights due to Civil Rights Movement
•  Women’s rights and gender equality
•  Huge increase in number of employed females
•  Peak in teen pregnancy after World War Two
•  Increased awareness of presence of incest and sexual abuse   of children by some parents and/or family members
•  Greater acceptance of divorce
•  Emergence of single-parent families

The Impact of Contemporary Social Issues 

• Public education, violence, addiction, economic recession
• Record number of families raising children in poverty
• Challenging employment prospects for young adults

• Continued debates surrounding reproductive choices, adoptive rights, general civil rights, and immigration
• September 11, 2001
• Military families

• Technology
• Information overload
• Less real-life face time with others, including family members

THE FEATURES OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILIES

• Marriage: couples marrying later, less frequent marriages due to increasing educational commitments and cohabitation
• Births: number of births to unmarried women has increased and number of births to adolescents has decreased, but number of births overall has remained fairly stable
• Divorce: divorce rates have stabilized, fragile families at higher risk, divorce has lost its social stigma
• Remarriage: rate generally declining since 1960s, remarriage creates blended families
• Family Income and Working Mothers: employment of both parents has become the norm which can affect child-care arrangements, family finances, etc.

THE ROLE OF CULTURE WITHIN
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONS

• Culture defines what families value and guides the behavior of members within the cultural group
• Parents are responsible for:

• Transmitting cultural heritage
• Set examples that support and enhance multicultural competence and cultural humility

• Cultures vary in many ways, key concepts:

• Heritage culture, host culture
• Individualism, collectivism, ethnocentrism

• Socialization is what parents do to teach children to conform to social rules, acquire personal values, and develop attitudes and behaviors that represent their culture at large. 

DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY
FAMILY FORMS AND STRUCTURES

Two-Parent Families

• Gender equality and dual parenting
• Androgynous parenting
• Dual and family centric – emphasis on work and family
• Decline in married parental units due to cohabitation 

Caucasian Parents and Children

• Included just over 72% of population (US Census 2010)
• Has dominated American culture due to size, positions of influence, and social and financial stature
• Middle-class values continue play a huge part in providing template for parenting ‘success’ 
• Consumerism of middle-class Caucasians
• Model of parent-child relations:
• Cultural universalism
• Cultural relativism

Hispanic Parents and Children

• Fastest growing ethnic group
• Largest number of children per family; more likely to live in large families (four or more persons)
• Greater tendency to experience substandard educational levels
• Religion plays a significant role in daily family life
• More extensive kinship-based support network
• Model of parent-child relations:
• Hierarchical parenting (authoritarian approach)
• ‘Three Rs’: personal relationships, responsibility, respect
• Children learn cooperation, other-centeredness, family loyalty, the importance of la familia

African American Parents and Children

• Marriage less likely between adults
• Larger proportion of female-headed family units
• Model of parent-child relations:
• Encourage early autonomy of children
• Intolerant of wasted time
• Authoritative disciplinary methods based on reasoning with children
• Encourage egalitarian family roles
• Children expected to become responsible and independent at an early age
• Emphasis on educational success
• Corporal punishment more likely to be viewed as appropriate positive parental behavior

Asian American Parents and Children

• Make up smaller percentage of population; live in fewer geographical areas
• Model of parent-child relations:
• Parents invest heavily in children and educational achievements
• Value strong parent-child relationships
• Encourage children while providing stable family life
• Emphasis on closeness and strict adherence to family rules
• Children expected to achieve personal maturity at an early age
• Physical and verbal aggression not tolerated
• Older children expected to serve as role models

American Indian and Alaskan Native
Parents and Children

• High fertility rates, large number of births to single parents, prevalence of households headed by women, high rates of unemployment, substance abuse and related disorders
• Model of parent-child relations:
• Children seen as treasured gifts
• Generally use more permissive styles, though some tribes may use more punitive and controlling methods
• Guide children’s development by combining nurture and control
• Emphasis on unity and cohesiveness with tribal and immediate family groups
• Children taught to perceive people and things based on intrinsic traits and characteristics

Multiracial and Interethnic
Parents and Children

• Historically, these relationships were frowned upon.
• Colonial laws prohibited marriage between people of different races as early as 1761
• The Supreme Court ruled these laws unconstitutional in 1967

• Since 1967, multiracial and interethnic marriages have increased partly as American society desegregated and an increase in socioeconomic opportunities
• Model of parent-child relations:
• Encourage activities that build ethnic identity
• Emphasis on exposing children to effective adult role models in multi-ethnic family contexts
• Focus on increased multicultural competence

Immigrant Parents and Children

• In 1965, federal legislation was passed regarding immigrating to the United States that gave priority to those with valued work skills, refugees, and those with family members already living in the US
• The number of immigrants coming to the US has steadily increased since 1960
• Since September 11, 2011, restrictions are more stringent and immigrant families may be scrutinized more carefully
• Model of parent-child relations:
• Face child rearing challenges associated with economic difficulties, language barriers, general acculturation problems, challenges of bi-culturalism
• Encourage educational achievement and success in community

potential parent rehearses what it would be like to be a parent with imagery

establishing attachment with infant

realization that parenthood involves strong element of adult authority

adults assume responsibility of interpreting world for their children

parenting adolescent children, demands that parents reexamine the issue of parental authority

parents reflect on all of their experiences in raising children

THE NECESSITY OF PARENT EDUCATION

• Currently, parental behavior is guided by:
• Trial-and-error learning
• Self-education
• Parental role models from family of origin
• Vague knowledge of developmental milestones

• Education
• Means of preventing or minimizing child rearing problems
• Prevention is better than cure
• Specific methods and techniques have emerged from social changes and behavioral scientific research
• Outcome and evidence based research

PARENTS AS TEACHERS

• Parents model important, timeless values
• Integrity to guide appropriate civic, law-abiding behavior
• Ability to attain goals and objectives including education
• Interpersonal and coping skills
• Respecting the needs of others, as well as one’s own

• Children have various needs
• To feel valued by parents and a few significant adults
• To develop their own personal attitudes, values, and opinions in order to become autonomous
• To develop and master skills and abilities that are valued by society
• To love and to be able to accept love from others

DEALING WITH DISCIPLINE

• Effective discipline…
• Is teaching children to behave in socially approved ways
• Guides children to internalize rules, values, and beliefs
• Helps to control impulses, allowing appropriate behavioral choices
• Guides social skills, facilitating work, family life, and other social interactions
• Should be positive, reasonable, and temperate
• Should be developmentally appropriate
• Requires an understanding of the child
• Is consistent as well as flexible
• Provides structure by developing rules within a family system

Further Guidelines on Appropriate Discipline

• Understand the concept of equifinality as it applies to a program of discipline
• Do not use abusive corporal punishment
• Try to understand children’s feelings and motivations
• Facilitate opportunities for children to learn to think, reason, and make choices regarding their actions
• Learn to value the individual differences of children as interesting and positive tools for personal growth rather than requiring that everyone in the family system be the same
• Maintain a clear understanding that discipline should be based on helping children develop an internal structure that is based on healthy self-esteem rather than fear, guilt, or shame
• Discipline is most effective when provided to children within a nurturing atmosphere

PARENTING STRATEGIES

• Behavioral Parenting Programs 

• Based on social learning principles
• Use positive reinforcement, negotiation, and finding alternatives to punishment

• Cognitive Behavioral Parenting Programs 

• Use principles of behavioral parenting
• Add cognitive elements to help parents restructure and reframe their thinking 

• Relationship-Based Parenting Programs 

• Focus on listening and communication skills
• Apply basic counseling principles to parent-child relations

• Multimodal Parenting Programs 
• Combine the elements of various programs
• Eclectic in nature

Behavioral Parenting Programs

• Behavior modification 
• Behavior is learned
• Behavior is a function of its consequences
• A given behavior is encouraged and taught when it is immediately rewarded or reinforced
• Positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement
• Intermittent reinforcement or continuous reinforcement
• Learning may be generalized from setting to setting

Relationship-Based Principles to Increase Parental Effectiveness

• Active listening: Parent listens to the child and sifts through the child’s statements to determine the feelings being covertly communicated
• “I” Messages: Parents can express their feelings to children about troublesome behavior in nondamaging ways in which the parent ‘owns’ the problem
• Negotiation skills and conflict resolution: Based on a bidirectional interaction where both parties bring something to the table and a mutually agreeable resolution is sought

Conflict Resolution Practices

• Identify the conflict and share the responsibility for conflict resolution
• Generate possible solutions, which at the same time develop the child’s cognitive skills
• Evaluate the solutions, thereby increasing communication between the parent and the child
• Decide on the best solution for both parties, thus avoiding destructive emotional effects
• Work out ways to implement the solution without the parent exerting power over the child
• Evaluate how well the solution worked, considering the benefits of encouraging autonomous behavior from the child

Ineffective Disciplinary Methods

• Discipline or parental behavior that is inconsistent
• Children receive mixed signals and are confused about how they should behave

• Irritable, explosive practices
• Inflexible, rigid discipline
• Parent does not employ verbal reasoning
• Parent does not adjust parental behavior to the child and does not provide the child with an opportunity to learn

• Low parental supervision and minimal involvement
• Children feel abandoned or emotionally neglected
• Puts children at risk of developing behavioral problems

PARENTING STYLES AND MODELS

• Parenting styles
• Collections of child rearing behaviors that tend to be global in nature 
• Characterize an overall approach to parenting
• Reflect a philosophy of parenting that characterizes what parents emphasize in shaping children’s developmental behaviors
• Encapsulate those attitudes and beliefs that form the implicit rules that guide a person’s behavior as a parent
• Significant influence on behavioral choices in interacting with and guiding the child toward adulthood
• May vary according to ethnic group or social class
• Adaptable within family systems

Authoritative Styles

• Combines best features of both authoritarian and permissive styles
• Emphasizes development of autonomy in children within reasonable limits
• Uses reasoning, overt demonstrations of power through mild punishment, or psychological reinforcement to provide structure 
• Reasoning behind the policies that the parent establishes is shared with the child, and the child’s opinion is heard in the appropriate context
• Encourages a child’s success in school, development of a healthy sense of personal autonomy, and positive work attitudes
• Particularly effective when children become adolescents because it coincides with the appropriate autonomy that young adults seek
• Practices acceptance and involvement in the ways that parents respond to their children’s needs and individual differences
• Practices strictness and supervision in parental monitoring and supervision of their children’s behavior in order to bring conformity to family rules
• Practices granting autonomy to encourage the teen’s expression of individuality and permitting participation in family decision making

NORMAL BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS OF CHILDREN

• Conflicts arise between parents and children over a number of situations including:

• Socialization tasks
• Relationship concerns
• Gaining compliance from children

• Many problems are simply a normal part of development as children strive to accomplish specific tasks but experience difficulty in mastering them

• May relate to the age (life span development) of a child 

• Parental awareness of difference between normal behavioral problems and problems that are more serious