Term
What differences do Males and Females compete for?
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Definition
Males compete for quantity of females.
Females compete for quality of males. |
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Term
Outline 3 points relating to how females invest more in their offspring? |
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Definition
1/ Females produce less eggs than men produce sperm and so they can only have a limited number of offspring.
2/ Females can be sure they are the parent as they bear it through pregnancy whereas a male cannot be sure if he is the father.
3/ Humans are born earlier in their development compared to some other animals and so they are born more immature. This means females are burdened for a long period of time with child-rearing. |
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Term
Why must females bear child-rearing for longer periods of times than other animals? |
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Definition
Due to the expanding size of the human head, human children must be born earlier in their development and are so born more immature than other animals. This means they require attention on a one-on-one basis and more child-rearing. |
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Term
Why can females only have a limited number of offspring? |
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Definition
Females can only produce a limited number of eggs whereas men can produce potentially unlimited amounts of sperm. Therefore females can only have a limited number of offspring. |
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Term
Why can females be sure they are the parents to their offspring? |
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Definition
Females can be sure because they will become pregnant and so they must be the parent. Whereas males cannot be sure if the child is theirs or if the female has been unfaithful. |
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Term
Outline 2 points relating to the investment of males in their offspring? |
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Definition
1/ Men can produce a potentially unlimited amount of offspring as the female is burdened by pregnancy whereas they can simply walk away having achieved the task of fertilisation.
2/ When males invest (resources) they are at risk of cuckoldry (investing in offspring which is not their own as a result of infidelity). |
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Term
Why can males have a potentially unlimited amount of offspring? |
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Definition
Whereas females are burdened by the 9 month period of pregnancy, resulting in a single child and then continue with child-rearing; males can simply walk away, having achieved the task of fertilisation and impregnate another female, increasing their own reproductive success. |
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Term
Why are males at risk of cuckoldry? |
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Definition
Females can be sure they are the parent due to pregnancy whereas males can never be entirely confident. Therefore males may invest in offspring which is not their own - wasting resources and decreasing their own reproductive success. |
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Term
Name 2 Psychologists who investigated Parental Investment in general?
(Initials: B&B, D&W) |
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Definition
Baker & Bellis
Daly & Wilson |
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Term
Outline the topic Baker and Bellis were investigating (not their own results/research)? |
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Definition
| The expense of child-rearing means that women want more good quality offspring so that their efforts have not been wasted. Therefore, they may marry a man who has good resources and so can provide for her children, but may also shop around for a different man with good genes but poor resources whom she can produce the offspring from. This way, she achieves both resources and good genetic offspring. |
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Term
Describe what Baker and Bellis discovered in their investigation of Parental Investment? |
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Definition
Estimated from a magazine survey that approximately 14% of the population are products of extra-marital affairs. |
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Term
Outline Daly and Wilson's research which continues on from Baker & Bellis's study? |
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Definition
Suggesting that cuckolding a partner is not without risks. For example, the female may risk possibilities of abandonment leading to no resources or of mate retention strategies to restrict her doing so again. |
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Term
Name 2 Psychologists supporting the theory of Parental Investment?
(Initials: B, G) |
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Definition
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Term
Why does Buss et al. support the theory of Parental Investment? |
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Definition
Found that male students expressed more concern about sexual infidelity (which would lead to investment of resources in another's child) whereas females expressed more concern about emotional infidelity (which could lead to abandoment and loss of resources). |
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Term
Why does Geher et al. support the theory of Parental Investment? |
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Definition
| Studied non-parent undergraduates and asked each one to complete a parental investment scale showing how prepared they felt for raising a child. Participants were also presented with different scenarios to react to. While there were no differences in expressed responses between genders, males showed increased heart rates when presented with scenarios emphasising parental costs (eg. can't work anymore). Men are therefore less biologically prepared. |
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Term
Name 3 Psychologists criticising the theory of Parental Investment?
(Initials: R, A, R) |
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Definition
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Term
Why does Reid criticise the theory of Parental Investment? |
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Definition
Suggested that males do invest just as much as females because their investment (food/resources) therefore means the family can live in a healthier environment and reduces child mortality. |
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Term
Why does Anderson criticise the theory of Parental Investment? |
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Definition
Measured the amount of resources invested by fathers in their biological children compared to their step-children and found no discriminating difference between the two. Criticises the theory as it proves males do still invest in children which are not their own. |
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Term
Why does Rowe criticise the theory of Parental Investment? |
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Definition
Reductionist as it's based solely on evolutionary factors. Personal and social conditions such as the quality of the relationship are not considered. |
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