Term
| Motion and Time: Who argued that the speed of light in a mathematical form and the laws of physics must be constant for all observers without exceptions? |
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Definition
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Term
| Motion and Time: What is special relativity and who is responsible for coming up with the concept? |
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Definition
| Special relativity argues that the speed of light in a mathematical form and the laws of physics must be constant for all observers without exceptions. Einstein. |
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Term
| Motion and Time: In the theory of special relativity, what changes does a stationary observer notice? |
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Definition
| Time on a moving body appears to slow down. The length of the body parallel to the motion appears to shrink. The mass of the moving body seems to increase. These changes depend on the speed of the body relative to the observer. |
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Term
| Motion and Time: What changed between special relativity and general relativity? |
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Definition
| General relativity allows the observer to be in the gravitational field, in other words, accelerated. Special relativity did not. |
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Term
| Matter and the Atom: What civilization first came up with the concept of the atom? What did the atom do? What are the basic forms of the atom called? |
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Definition
Greeks.
Atoms occupied space and combined into different forms.
Elements. |
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Term
| What did the theories did the Greeks have on the divisibility of matter? |
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Definition
| One Greek theory was that matter could be divided indefinitely (Continuum). The other theory is that matter had some irreducible part. Referred to as Atomits. |
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Term
| Who theorized that four ultimate elements compose all the structures in the world? What were the four elements? What were the elements called? |
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Definition
Empedocles.
Fire, air, water, and earth.
Roots. |
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Term
| Who proposed powers which acted as forces to bring about the mixture and separation of the elements? What were the forces? Which caused mixture and which caused separation? |
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Definition
Empedocles.
Love and Strife.
Love mixes. Strife separates. |
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Term
| Who coined the term "atom," and what were his beliefs about them? |
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Definition
Leucippus and Democritus.
Atoms were so tiny that they were invisible. They banged around forming and unforming compounds: Turmoil. Denied divine intervention or design. |
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Term
| Who argued that the atom was permanent and finite? What did they say on the subject? Why is this important? |
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Definition
Epicurus and Lucretius.
"Nothing comes from nothing."
They almost arrived at the concept of conservation of mass and their view was for a finite limit on types of atoms. |
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Term
| Who combined the two views on the atom? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the fore different basic kinds of matter? What state are they? What are they composed of? |
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Definition
| earth, air, fire, and water—but they are regular solids composed from plane figures: isosceles and scalene right-angled triangles. |
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Term
| According to Plato, how did the elements transform into one another? |
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Definition
| Because the same triangles can form into different regular solids, the theory thus explains how some of the elements can transform into one another, as was widely believed. |
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Term
| How did Plato explain the differences seen with the earths? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who saw the universe as a Plenum? What does this mean? What was his view? |
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Definition
| Aristotle. Nature abhors a vacuum. He was of the continuum view. |
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Term
| What is a Pneuma and what could it be easily translated into? |
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Definition
A medium composed of fire and air that filled the voids around matter (which stays with Aristotle's plenum view) but makes it active.
The Pneuma could easily be translated into God. |
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Term
| Which alchemist argued that all matter is a combination of sulfur and mercury and salt? (Archeus) |
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Definition
Paracelsus the alchemist.
Sulfur and mercury would become important elements in alchemy, a practice driven my practical needs, such as turning lesser materials into gold. |
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Term
| Who took Aristotle's concept of informed of matter; that is all bodies have a fundamental substance, uninformed matter, plus formed matter,--• the appearance of bread (quantifiable, measurable formed matter) separated from the substance of bread, the body of Christ (uninformed matter)? What is that event called? |
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Definition
Aquinas.
Transubstantiation. |
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Term
| What were people who believed that substance (uninformed matter) was inseparable from extension (formed matter) called? Name one person who was one. |
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Definition
Nominalists.
William of Ockham. |
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Term
| Who proposed that when matter breaks down, it releases fiery minims? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who argued that suction was not a force and used an evacuated tube filled with mercury to create the first barometer? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who used the Torricelli/Viviana device as a detector of the change in atmospheric pressure? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who invented the vacuum pump and conducted the Magdeburg hemispheres experiment? What did the experiment show? |
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Definition
Otto Von Guericke.
• the conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that teams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been (partially) evacuated |
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Term
| Name all of Robert Boyle's contributions to chemistry. |
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Definition
Boyle found that, in a vacuum, charcoal was extinguished, animals died, and food was preserved.
He came up with Boyle's law through careful experimentation (As did Edme Mariotte).
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional for a set amount of gas at one temperature.
Argued for gas as atoms in voids.
Believed matter to be conserved, but the tiny particles were corpuscles in a void.
Noted that mass of oxidized metals increased. (Jean Rey noted that the extra mass came from the air.) |
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Term
| Who believed that if there was mass, there was inertia; that atoms took up space; that attracted forces were analogues to either magnetic, gravitational, or even electrical? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who took a stab at short range electrical force which became part of quantum mechanics? What did he argue? |
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Definition
| Newton. He argued that assuming the existence of forces of attraction between particles suggests bonding. He introduced the vibration of wave like behavior that is the basis of modern quantum mechanics. |
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Term
| Who invented a pneumatic trough that he passed gasses he generated to keep them separated from air? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who postulated the existence of Phlogiston and what is it? |
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Definition
George Ernst Stahl.
Phlogiston was a fire-like element which were contained within combustible bodies and were released during combustion. The theory was an attempt to explain the burning and rusting of metals. Phlogiston could have a negative mass. Metals and fire were considered to be rich in phlogiston and earth was considered oxygen (dephlogisticated air) poor. |
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Term
| Who added two quantities of hydrogen to one quantity of oxygen and passed a spark through it, producing an explosion and water vapor/ water drops? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who is credited for changing chemistry from a qualitative to a quantitative science? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who showed that the mass of the products in a reaction are equal to the mass of the reactants? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who found that dephlogistic air was really oxygen which also deflated Stahl's phlogiston theory? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who created the first modern textbook? It contained a list of elements, what were they? |
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Definition
Antoine Lavoisier.
Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, Mercury, Zinc, and sulfur.
Included light and caloric.
Water and air were demoted and no longer elements.
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Term
| Who came up with the Law of Definite Proportions and argued that all matter is really just a collection of hydrogen atoms? |
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Definition
Joseph Louis Proust.
Ne noticed that copper carbonate made in his lab and natural copper carbonate both have the same proportion of weights between the three elements involved. |
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Term
| Who found that if the mass and pressure of a gas are held constant, then the gas volume increases linearly as the temperature rises? V = kT on the Kelvin scale. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is Amedo Avogadro's Law? |
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Definition
| two given samples of gas, of the same volume and at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. |
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Term
| Who validated Avogadro's Law and argued that gasses are comprised of tiny hard body particles (not perfectly hard), that randomly clide with each other and the sides of their container? How can pressure be thought of? |
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Definition
James Clerk Maxwell.
Pressure can be thought of as number of collisions per area per time. |
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Term
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Definition
| When metals are heated, they give off certain colors/light. Every atom has its own emission spectrum which acts like a finger print. |
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Term
| Who created the first periodic table? What did he realize? |
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Definition
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) realized that the physical and chemical properties of elements were related to their atomic mass in a 'periodic' way,
• arranged them so that groups of elements with similar properties fell into vertical columns
• There were gaps in the table where elements were expected. Most of these would be found in time |
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Term
| Who found x-rays to be of a high energy light? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who discovered radioactivity? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who showed that radioactivity came from unstable atoms referred to as radioactive atoms? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who discovered the electron through studying cathode rays? |
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Definition
| J. J. Thompson and Jean Perrin. |
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Term
| Who performed a series of oil drop experiments and found the charge and mass of an electron? (1/2000 of a hydrogen atom) |
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Definition
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Term
| Who showed that alpha particles came from the breakdown of an atom into lighter atoms (helium nuclei)? |
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Definition
| Ernest Rutherford and Fredrick Soddy. |
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Term
| Who is responsible for the plum pudding model and what was it? |
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Definition
| J. J. Thompson. The atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the electrons' negative charges. |
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Term
| Who came up with the photoelectric effect? What is the photoelectric effect? |
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Definition
Einstein.
When light shines on a metal surface, the surface emits electrons. The amount of electrons released depends on a minimum frequency of light, not how bright the light is. |
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Term
| Who said that light comes in tiny packages called photons which have both wave properties and mass properties? (He also used Planck's equation for frequency.) |
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Definition
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Term
| Who designed an experiment that shot alpha particles at a piece of very thin gold foil and what did he find? What were his other contributions which came from that experiment? |
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Definition
| Ernest Rutherford. He found that most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil which showed that most of the atom is empty space. A few of the alpha particles were deflected which means that the center of the atom, or nucleus is positively charged. He named the proton. |
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Term
| Who found isotopes? What are isotopes? |
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Definition
Frederick Soddy.
Elements with the same chemical properties but different weights. |
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Term
| Who verified the existence of the neutron? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who combined the Rutherford model of the atom with the quantum mathematics of Max Planck, E=hv? Describe his model of the atom. |
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Definition
| Neils Bohr. The atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus. Attraction is provided by electrostatic forces, rather than gravity, and the energy of the orbits of the electrons are quantized (they can only take certain values. 2, 8, 8) |
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Term
| Who founded the mathematical approach of quantum mechanics to better model behavior? |
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Definition
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Term
| What word is Greek for "activity, operation"? |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe the early study of energy. |
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Definition
The early study of energy would be hampered by the absence of a material component of energy.
The early study of Energy would focus on heat A deeper exploration of heat would wait until it was un-linked from fire and matter (Phlogiston)
The concept of energy emerged out of the Greek idea of vis viva (living force)
Ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus had inklings of energy and the law of conservation of energy but they would do little in unraveling its mysteries. |
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Term
| What is the Principle of Minima? |
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Definition
| Water takes the path of least resistance. |
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Term
| What was Hero of Alexandra's contribution to the study of energy in terms of light? |
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Definition
| in noting that light reflects of a surface at the same angle that it strikes it, says ‘light takes the shortest path or distance”: Minimum distance. |
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Term
| Who modified "shortest distance" to be "shortest time," allowing for refraction, which isn't shortest distance? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who modifies Fermat's "shortest time" to "principle of least action?" |
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Definition
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Term
Conserved quantities:
_______is neither created nor destroyed, but only changed _________ |
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Definition
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Term
| Which two Greeks argued that the irreducible atom was permanent and finite. "Nothing comes from nothing." |
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Definition
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Term
| Which two scientists developed the concept of conservation of mass? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who developed the concept of the center of mass and built on Jean Buridan's and Galileo's works to formalize Conservation of Momentum? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who noted that water froze and boiled at characteristic temperatures? |
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Definition
| Newton. (Boiling water would never exceed its characteristic temperatures regardless of how much heat was added) |
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Term
| Are temperature and heat the same thing? |
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Definition
| No. They would need separation. |
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Term
| Who discovered latent heat and specific heat? |
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Definition
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Term
| What does the application of heat to ice at its melting point cause? |
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Definition
| An increase in the amount of water in the mixture, not a rise in temperature of the ice/water. |
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Term
| What is caused by the application of heat to boiling water? |
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Definition
| An increase in the amount of steam, not an increase in heat. |
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Term
| What theory marks the beginning of thermodynamics? |
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Definition
| Latent heat. o heat applied must have combined with the ice particles and boiling water and become latent (present and capable of emerging or developing but not now visible). |
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Term
| What is specific heat? What is it not? |
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Definition
| The capacity a substance has for giving and receiving heat. Specific heat is not a direct reflection of density; just because something is more dense does not mean it has a higher heat capacity. |
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Term
| What is a "heat fluid" called? What were its qualities? |
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Definition
Caloric.
It was reasoned to be weightless.
It was argued that caloric was attracted to other matter but repelled by other caloric since matter dispersed additional heat evenly. |
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Term
| What name did the British physicist Benjamin Thompson take? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who observed that the frictional heat generated by boring cannon was seemingly inexhaustible and caused no physical change? What did this prove about caloric? |
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Definition
Benjamin Thompson/Count Rumford.
Caloric wasn't being squeezed out of the chips machined away. (In fact, the chips were hotter.) |
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Term
| Who created the first steam engine? What was it used for? |
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Definition
Thomas Newcomen created the Newcomen steam engine.
It was used to pump water. |
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Term
| Who improved the Newcomen steam engine? How? |
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Definition
James Watt.
• This energy was wasted because later in the cycle, cold water was injected into the cylinder to condense the steam to reduce its pressure
o Thus the engine expended much of its energy in repeatedly heating the cylinder rather than in delivering mechanical force.
• He came to realize the importance of latent heat in understanding the engine
• Watt's critical insight was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature . |
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Term
| Who created the first modern definition of work? What is the definition? What is the formula? |
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Definition
Sadi Carnot.
Weight lifted through a height.
Work = force x distance. |
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Term
| What did Sadi Carnot discover that the efficiency of an engine depended on? What does it not dependent upon? |
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Definition
the efficiency of an idealized engine depends only on the difference in temperature between the hottest parts and the coldest parts, (Th−Tc)⁄Th.
It is NOT dependent on the substance that drives the mechanism. |
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Term
| Who was the first man to understand air pressure from a molecular point of view? Describe his picture of air pressure in a cylinder. What did he say about heat in terms of particles? |
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Definition
Daniel Bernoulli.
picture of a vertical cylinder, closed at the bottom, with a piston at the top, the piston having a weight on it, both piston and weight being supported by the air pressure inside the cylinder.
“heat may be considered as an increasing motion of particles” |
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Term
| Who laid the foundation for the Kinetic Theory of Gasses? |
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Definition
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Term
| Motivated by theological beliefs, _____ began attempting to demonstrate the unity of forces in nature. |
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Definition
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Term
| Who was the first person to measure the speed of a gas molecule? |
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Definition
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Term
| James Joule repeated ____________'s experiment that showed a gas that is allowed to expand into a vacuum does not change temperature. What did Joule add to the experiment? |
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Definition
Guy Lussac.
He added the experiment that when a gas expands against a piston it experiences a decrease in temperature. |
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Term
| Who discovered that heat can be translated into mechanical work? The same person determined the amount of heat needed to raise one pound of water by one degree. How much heat does it take and what is the modern equivalent? |
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Definition
James Joule.
• Heat need to take 1 lb of water and raise it 1oF (252 calories)
• Modern equivalent :1 cal = 4.186 Joules with a J= 1 Nm- 1kg*m/s2 (work) |
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Term
| Who postulated a relationship between mechanics, heat, light, electricity, and magnetism by treating them all as manifestations of a single force (energy, in modern terms)? |
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Definition
| Hermann Ludwing Ferdinand von Helmholtz. |
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Term
| What five things did Hermann Ludwing Ferdinand von Helmholtz postulate a relationship between? |
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Definition
| Mechanics, heat, light, electricity, and magnetism. |
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Term
| What is Helmholtz free energy? What was his formula? What is the revised formula? |
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Definition
Helmholtz free energy is a thermodynamic potential that measures the “useful” work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant temperature and volume.
• Revised the formula for vis viva from mv2 to ½ mv2 (kinetic energy) |
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Term
| Who assimilated the law of the transformation of energy into a general theory of energy? What was the theory called? What did the theory add? |
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Definition
Rankine.
"The science of energetics."
It distinguished stored energy from work done to create it. |
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Term
| What is stored energy called? What is the formula for stored energy? What is it? When it is released, what does the energy change into? |
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Definition
• Stored energy is called potential energy: PE of gravity , PE =m*g*h; Hookes law F= -kx
• Potential energy is an energy of position
• On the release it is turned into KE: m*g*h=½ mv2 |
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Term
| What does the conservation of energy mean for the transformation of potential energy to potential energy? What is the formula? |
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Definition
| The amount of energy stays the same, it just changes type. • Conservation of energy means the m*g*h + ½ mv2 =0 |
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Term
| Which people formulated the first law of thermodynamics? |
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Definition
| Rudolph Clausius and William Thompson, 1st Baron Kelvin. |
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Term
| What is the first law of thermodynamics? |
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Definition
| Heat and work are forms of energy transfer. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of the first kind are impossible. |
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Term
| Who introduced the second law of thermodynamics as well as the concept of entropy? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is entropy? Who developed the statistical mechanics of entropy? |
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Definition
Entropy is the degree of disorder in a system. As energy is transferred from one form to another, some is lost as heat; as the energy decreases,the disorder and entropy of a system increases.
Boltzmann and Gibbs develop the statistical mechanics of entropy. |
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Term
| What is the second law of thermodynamics and what does it mean? |
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Definition
"in all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state."
The universe tends to disorder.
There is a time arrow with this law which suggests that at some latter date all work and energy will be turned into heat. |
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Term
Who came up with the equation E=mc^2?
What is the equation in word form?
What does it imply and what is it the basis of? |
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Definition
Einstein.
Energy = an object's resting mass x the speed of light squared. (9x10^16).
This implies that energy and mass are inter-convertable and that a tiny amount of mass time is a tremendous amount of energy.
This is the basis for nuclear power and bombs. |
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