Term
| change in an organism's behaviour or thought as a result of experience |
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Definition
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Term
| process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli |
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Definition
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Term
| responding to stimuli more strongly over time |
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Definition
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Term
| forming associations among stimuli |
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Definition
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Term
| form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response |
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Definition
| classical (Pavlovian) conditioning |
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Term
| stimulus that elicits an automatic response |
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Definition
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Term
| automatic response to a nonneutral stimulus that does not need to be learned |
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Definition
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Term
| response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning |
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Definition
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Term
| initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to association with an unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
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Term
| learning phase during which a conditioned response is established |
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Definition
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Term
| gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
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Term
| sudden reemergence of an extinct conditioned response after a delay in exposure to the conditioned stimulus |
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Definition
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Term
| sudden reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the conditioned response was acquired |
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Definition
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Term
| intense, irrational fears |
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Definition
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Term
| process by which conditioned stimuli similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response |
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Definition
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Term
| idea that the more similar to the original CS the new CS is, the stronger the CR will be |
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Definition
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Term
| process by which organisms display a less pronounced conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus |
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Definition
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Term
| developing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus by virtue of its association with another conditioned stimulus |
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Definition
| higher-order conditioning |
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Term
| higher-order CSs that refer to the setting in which the CS occurs |
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Definition
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Term
| difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to a conditioned stimulus we've repeatedly experienced alone, that is, without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
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Term
| sexual attraction to nonliving things |
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Definition
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Term
| learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behaviour |
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Definition
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Term
| elicits behaviour automatically, reward is provided unconditionally, and behaviour depends on autonomic nervous system |
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Definition
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Term
| behaviour is emitted voluntarily, reward is contingent on behaviour, and behaviour depends primarily on skeletal muscles |
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Definition
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Term
| principle asserting that if a stimulus followed by a behaviour results in a reward, the stimulus is more likely to give rise in the future |
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Definition
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Term
| grasping the underlying nature of a problem |
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Definition
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Term
| small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods on conditioning to be administered and behaviours to be recorded unsupervised |
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Definition
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Term
| outcome or consequence of a behaviour that strengthens the probability of the behaviour |
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Definition
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Term
| presentation of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of a behaviour |
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Definition
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Term
| removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of a behaviour |
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Definition
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|
Term
| outcome or consequence of a behaviour that weakens the probability of the behaviour |
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Definition
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|
Term
| shortly after withdrawing the reinforcer the undesired behaviour initially increases in intensity |
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Definition
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Term
| pattern of reinforcing a behaviour |
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Definition
| schedule of reinforcement |
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Term
| reinforcing a behaviour every time it occurs, resulting in faster learning but faster extinction than occasional reinforcement |
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Definition
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Term
| occasional reinforcement of the behaviour, resulting in slower extinction that if the behaviour had been reinforced continually |
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Definition
| partial (intermittent) reinforcement |
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Term
| pattern in which we provide reinforcement following a regular number of responses |
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Definition
| fixed ratio (FR) schedule |
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Term
| pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once following a specified time interval |
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Definition
| fixed interval (FI) schedule |
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Term
| pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses on average, with the number varying randomly |
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Definition
| variable ratio (VR) schedule |
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Term
| pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once during an average time interval, with the interval varying randomly |
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Definition
| variable interval (VI) schedule |
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Term
| conditioning a target behaviour by progressively reinforcing behaviours that come closer and closer to the target |
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Definition
| shaping by successive approximation |
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Term
| action linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence |
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Definition
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Term
| systems for reinforcing appropriate behaviours and extinguishing inappropriate ones |
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Definition
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Term
| actions psychologists hope to make more frequent |
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Definition
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|
Term
| neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer |
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Definition
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Term
| item or outcome that naturally increases the target behaviour |
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Definition
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Term
| idea that we need both classical and operant conditioning to explain the persistence of anxiety problems |
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Definition
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Term
| theory that observable behaviour, thinking, and emotion are all governed by the same laws of learning |
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Definition
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Term
| learning that isn't directly observable |
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Definition
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Term
| our interpretation of the situation affects conditioning |
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Definition
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Term
| mental representation of how a physical space is organized |
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Definition
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Term
| learning by watching others |
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Definition
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Term
| cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated by specific motions when an animal both performs and observes that action |
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Definition
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Term
| sudden understanding of the solution to a problem |
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Definition
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Term
| classical conditioning leading us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food |
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Definition
| conditioned taste aversion |
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Term
| claim that we can classically condition all CSs equally well to all UCSs |
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Definition
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Term
| evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value |
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Definition
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|
Term
| retention of information over time |
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Definition
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|
Term
| fake but subjectively compelling memory |
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Definition
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|
Term
| memory in which we see ourselves as an outside observer would |
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Definition
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|
Term
| memory where you see the world through your visual field |
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Definition
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Term
| how much information each system can hold |
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Definition
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|
Term
| over how long a period of time that system can hold information |
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Definition
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Term
| brief storage of perceptual information before it's passed to short-term memory |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| memory system that retains information for limited durations |
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Definition
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|
Term
| fading of information from memory over time |
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Definition
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|
Term
| loss of information from memory because of competition from additional incoming information |
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Definition
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|
Term
| interference with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information |
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Definition
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|
Term
| interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information |
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Definition
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|
Term
| span of short-term memory, according to George Miller: seven plus or minus two pieces of information |
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Definition
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|
Term
| organizing information into meaningful groupings, allowing us to extend the span of short-term memory |
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Definition
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|
Term
| repeating information to extend the duration of retention in short-term memory |
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Definition
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|
Term
| repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory |
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Definition
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|
Term
| linking stimuli to each other in a meaningful way to improve retention of information in short-term memory |
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Definition
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|
Term
| depth of transforming information, which influences how easily we remember it |
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Definition
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|
Term
| relatively enduring (from minutes to years) retention of information stored regarding our facts, experiences, and skills |
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Definition
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|
Term
| type of long term memory that appears to be permanent |
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Definition
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|
Term
| tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well |
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Definition
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|
Term
| tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well |
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Definition
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|
Term
| graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people's ability to recall items on a list |
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Definition
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|
Term
| our knowledge of facts about the world |
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Definition
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Term
| recollection of events in our lives |
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Definition
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|
Term
| memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness |
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Definition
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|
Term
| memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously |
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Definition
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|
Term
| memory for how to do things, including motor skills and habits |
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Definition
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|
Term
| our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we've encountered similar stimuli |
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Definition
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|
Term
| process of getting information into our memory banks |
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Definition
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Term
| learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the associate of a word in a list with another word that rhymes with it |
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Definition
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|
Term
| relies on imagery of locations |
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Definition
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|
Term
| thinking of a word that reminds you of what you're trying to remember |
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Definition
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|
Term
| process of keeping information in memory |
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Definition
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|
Term
| organized knowledge structure or mental model that we've stored in memory |
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Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| reactivation of reconstruction of experiences from our memory stores |
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Definition
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|
Term
| hint that makes it easier for us to recall information |
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Definition
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|
Term
| generating previously remembered information |
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Definition
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|
Term
| selecting previously remembered information from an array of options |
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Definition
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|
Term
| reacquiring knowledge that we'd previously learned but largely forgotten over time |
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Definition
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|
Term
| studying information in small increments over time vs. in large increments over a brief amount of time |
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Definition
| distributed vs. massed practice |
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Term
| experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it |
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Definition
| tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon |
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Term
| phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it |
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Definition
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|
Term
| superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context |
|
Definition
| context-dependent learning |
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Term
| superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding |
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Definition
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|
Term
| superior retrieval of memories when your mood matches that of your mood when you encoded the information |
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Definition
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|
Term
| physical trace of each memory in the brain |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| organized groups where engrams are located in the brain |
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Definition
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|
Term
| gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation |
|
Definition
| long-term potentiation (LTP) |
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|
Term
| loss of all memories of a previous life, even who the person is |
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Definition
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|
Term
| loss of memories from our past |
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Definition
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|
Term
| inability to encode new memories from our experiences |
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Definition
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|
Term
| emotional memory that is extraordinarily detailed and vivid |
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Definition
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|
Term
| idea that many flashbulb memories are false |
|
Definition
| phantom flashbulb memories |
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|
Term
| lack of clarity about the origin of a memory |
|
Definition
| source monitoring confusion |
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|
Term
| failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else |
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Definition
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|
Term
| procedure that encourages patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place |
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Definition
| suggestive memory techniques |
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|
Term
| creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place |
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Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| environments we encounter |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| situation in which the effects of genes depend in the environment in which they are expressed |
|
Definition
| gene-environment interaction |
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Term
| tendency of individuals with certain genetic predispositions to seek out and create environments that permit the expression of those predispositions |
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Definition
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|
Term
| activation or deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development |
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Definition
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|
Term
| study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate, and remember |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Piagetian process of absorbing new experience into current knowledge structures |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Piagetian process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience |
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Definition
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|
Term
| stage in Piaget's theory characterized by a focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally (birth - 2 years) |
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Definition
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|
Term
| understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ability to perform an action observed earlier |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| stage in Piaget's theory characterized by the ability to construct mental representations of experience, but not yet perform operations on them (2-7 years) |
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Definition
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|
Term
| inability to see the world from others' perspectives |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Piagetian task requiring children to understand that despite transformation in the physical presentation of an amount, the amount remains the same |
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Definition
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|
Term
| stage in Piaget's theory characterized by the ability to perform mental operations on the physical events only (7-11 years) |
|
Definition
| concrete operational stage |
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Term
| stage in Piaget's theory characterized by the ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now (11 years - adulthood) |
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Definition
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|
Term
| refers to cases in which a child is more advanced in one cognitive domain than another |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children's learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent |
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Definition
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|
Term
| phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction |
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Definition
| zone of proximal development |
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Term
| basic understanding of some other aspects of how physical objects behave |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ability to reason about what other people know or believe |
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Definition
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|
Term
| testing of children's ability to understand that someone else believe something they know to be wrong |
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Definition
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|
Term
| fear of strangers developing at eight or nine months of age |
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Definition
| stranger anxiety (eight months anxiety) |
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Term
| basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin |
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Definition
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|
Term
| temperamental style where babies are adaptable and relaxed |
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Definition
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|
Term
| temperamental style where babies are fussy and easily frustrated |
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Definition
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|
Term
| temperamental style where babies are disturbed by new stimuli at first, but gradually warm up to them |
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Definition
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|
Term
| temperamental style where babies become frightened at the sight of novel or unexpected stimuli |
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Definition
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|
Term
| strong emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest |
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Definition
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|
Term
| goslings following round the first large, moving object they see after hatching |
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Definition
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|
Term
| positive emotions afforded by touch |
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Definition
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|
Term
| style where infant becomes upset when mother leaves, greets her return with joy |
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Definition
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|
Term
| style where baby reacts to mother's departure with indifference and shows little reaction on return |
|
Definition
| insecure-avoidant attachment |
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Term
| baby reacts to mother's departure with panic, shows mixed emotional reaction on her return |
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Definition
| insecure-anxious (anxious-ambivalent) attachment |
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Term
| style where baby reacts to mother's departure and return with inconsistent and confused set of responses |
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Definition
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|
Term
| drawing conclusions on the basis of only a single measure |
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Definition
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|
Term
| parenting style where parents are lenient with their children, use discipline sparingly |
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Definition
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|
Term
| parenting style where parents are strict and punish children when they don't respond appropriately to their demands |
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Definition
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|
Term
| parenting style where parents combine the best features of permissive and authoritarian worlds |
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Definition
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|
Term
| parenting style where parents are neglectful and pay little attention to their children |
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Definition
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|
Term
| environment that provides children with basic needs for affection and discipline |
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Definition
| average expectable environment |
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Term
| idea that children learn more from peers than parents |
|
Definition
| group socialization theory |
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Term
| ability to inhibit an impulse to act |
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Definition
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|
Term
| individuals' sense of being male or female |
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Definition
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|
Term
| set of behaviours that tend to be associated with being male or female |
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Definition
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|
Term
| sense of who we are, and our life goals and priorities |
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Definition
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|
Term
| dilemma concerning an individual's relations to other people |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| mental state or feeling associated with out evaluation of our experiences |
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Definition
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|
Term
| theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that are rooted in our biology |
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Definition
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|
Term
| small number (seven?) of emotions believed by some theorists to be cross-culturally universal |
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Definition
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|
Term
| combinations of primary emotions |
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Definition
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|
Term
| cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theories proposing that emotions are products of thinking |
|
Definition
| cognitive theories of emotion |
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|
Term
| theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli |
|
Definition
| James-Lange theory of emotion |
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|
Term
| theory proposing that we use our gut reactions to help us determine how we should act |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| deterioration of autonomic nervous system neurons beginning in middle age |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theory proposing that an emotion-provoking even leads simultaneously to an emotion and to bodily reactions |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theory proposing that emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of arousal along with an attribution (explanation) of that arousal |
|
Definition
| two-factor theory of emotion |
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|
Term
| chemical that produces physiological arousal |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| variables outside our awareness that can affect our feelings |
|
Definition
| unconscious influences on emotion |
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|
Term
| phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably to it |
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Definition
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|
Term
| theory that blood vessels in the face feed back temperature information in the brain, altering our experience of emotion |
|
Definition
| facial feedback hypothesis |
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|
Term
| discipline that has sought to emphasize human strengths |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| strategy of anticipating failure and compensating for this expectation by mentally overpreparing for negative outcomes |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theory proposing that happiness predisposes us to think more openly |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| tendency for people to remember more positive than negative information with age |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| mental state in which we're completely immersed in what we're doing |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| psychological drives that propel us in a specific direction |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theory proposing that certain drives, like hunger, thirst, and sexual frustration motivate us to act in ways that minimize aversive states |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| inverted U-shaped relation between arousal on the one hand, and mood and performance on the other |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| predisposition towards certain stimuli |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| disposition away from certain stimuli |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theories proposing that we're often motivated by positive goals |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| when people are motivated by internal goals |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| when people are motivated by external goals |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| once we receive reinforcement for performing a behaviour, we anticipate that reinforcement again |
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Definition
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|
Term
| model, developed by Abraham Maslow, proposing that we must satisfy physiological needs and needs for safety and security before progressing to more complex needs |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theory that when our blood glucose levels drop, hunger creates a drive to eat to restore the proper level of glucose |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| value that establishes a range of body and muscle mass we tend to maintain |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| theory holding that obese people are motivated to eat more by external cues than internal cues |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| phase in human sexual response in which people experience sexual pleasure and notice physiological changes |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| phase in human sexual response in which sexual tension builds |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| phase in human sexual response marked by involuntary rhythmic contractions in the muscles in the genitals of both men and women |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| phase in human sexual response following orgasm, in which people report relaxation and a sense of well-being |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| category of sounds our vocal apparatus produces |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| smallest meaningful unit of speech |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| elements of communication that aren't part of the content of language but are critical to its meaning |
|
Definition
| extralinguistic information |
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|
Term
| meanings derived from words and sentences |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| grammatical elements that modify words by adding sounds to them that change their meaning |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| language variation used by a group of people who share geographic proximity or ethnic background |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| test where infants suck on pacifiers more when their hear their mother's native language than when they hear a foreign language |
|
Definition
| high-amplitude sucking procedure |
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|
Term
| intentional vocalization that lacks specific meaning |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| applying words in a broader sense |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| applying words in a narrower sense |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| early period of language development when children use single-word phrases to convey an entire thought |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| allowing an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in novel ways |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| account of language acquisition that suggests children are born with some basic knowledge of how language works |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hypothetical organ in the brain in which nativists believe knowledge of syntax resides |
|
Definition
| language acquisition device |
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|
Term
| account of language acquisition that proposes children infer what words and sentences mean from context and social interactions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| idea that children's ability to learn language results from general skills that children apply across a variety of activites |
|
Definition
| general cognitive processing |
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|
