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| the study of the mind & brain |
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| tendency to seek out info. that confirms our hypothesis & neglect, distort, or disregard evidence that contradicts it. |
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| tendency to stick w/. our original ideas even w/. better evidence. |
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An open mind is a virtue… so long as your brains don’t fall out. (Be open minded, but not to the pt. you believe everything)
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| the more a claim contradicts what we already know, the more evidence we should require t o believe it. (Aka believing in bigfoot) realistic example from the past: pangea & plate tectonics |
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1. capable of being disproved; not necessarily false. Good theories make risky predictions w/. unambiguous tests of outcomes. Bad theories “hedge bets” (ex. NO WAY of knowing if dreams are symbolic)
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| if a study’s findings can’t be duplicated consistently, they may have been due to chance or incorrect for other reason. The media often forgets this when reporting on new findings. |
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| “shave” away unnecessary assumptions (ex: crop circles => human hoax or message from aliens.) |
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Correlation is not equal to Causation/
'Correlation/Causation Fallacy' |
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| just because 2 things occur together does NOT mean that one causes another. (Ex. Violent video games DOES NOT school violence) |
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| mental shortcuts/rules that help us streamline our thinking & make sense of the world |
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| Judging the probability of an event based on its superficial similarity to a prototype (stereotyping) |
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| Judging how common something is/how frequently it occurs in a population (ex: winning the lottery, catching a rare disease) |
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| Estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds. (ex: but I know a guy...) |
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| Systematic errors in thinking |
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| Overestimating how well we could have anticipated something |
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| Our confidence in our accuracy is typically not related to our actual accuracy. |
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anything that can be measured and can take on different values. i.e. weight, eye color, height, hair color, etc.
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| the extent to which we can make cause-and-effect inferences from a particular study |
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| Extent to which we can generalize findings to the real world. |
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| Observing subjects in their natural setting, typically when they aren’t aware that they’re being observed. |
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| Examine one person or a very small group over an extended amount of time in depth. |
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| Examining the relationship between two variables |
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| We believe that two items are associated when in fact there is no statistical data backing it up |
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Allow us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions.
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Differences between Control Group and Experimental Group other than the IV
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| Improvement resulting from expectation of improvement alone |
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| Harm resulting from mere expectation of harm |
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| Occurs when researchers unintentionally bias the outcome of a study |
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| Participants’ knowledge that they are being watched affects their behavior |
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| two way mirrors, remote, monitoring, watching from a distance |
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| become members of a group and observe from within |
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| subtle cues from experimenters about expected outcomes. |
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| Consistency; how similar scores are to one another. |
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the extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure
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| A test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID, but this is not sufficient to make it valid. (That is, a test be reliable, but invalid). |
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| Positive Impression Management |
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| trying to make yourself look better than you really are |
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| trying to make yourself look worse than you really are |
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| ratings of one positive characteristic “spill over” onto ratings of other unrelated characteristics. (ex.: if you like someone, you will tend to rate them higher on things that may not necessarily be accurate.) |
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| people don’t want to give other people terrible ratings (results in inflated ratings in some domains) |
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| Error of Central Tendency |
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unwillingness to provide extreme high or low answers
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| Institutional Review Board |
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| Make sure that people who are participating in a study are out of harm’s way, that they are being taken care of, and that the report is overlooked |
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| Making sure people know the risks of what they are getting themselves into. |
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| The way of performing an experiment to get the optimal results by deceiving people within the lines of their informed consent. |
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| When you reveal to the participants what really was being studied and all closed doors are opened to participants. |
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| Statistically Insignificant |
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| outcome is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone (less than a 5/100 chance of happening randomly) |
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| outcome has real world implications |
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| 2 parts: Central Nervous system (Brain & spinal cord) and Peripheral Nervous System (network of nerves) |
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Central Nervous System
(CNS) |
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| main highway of nervous system that everything stems off of. made up of brain & spinal cord |
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Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS) |
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| network of nerves that stem off of CNS like side streets & country roads |
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Part of CNS in Autonomic Forebrain.Action planning & reward seeking behaviors. Implicated in Parkinson’s disease
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| Part of CNS in Forebrain. sensory information relay center. Gateway to cerebral cortex. |
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| regulates cortical arousal, selective attention. Produce acetylcholine. Implicated in Alzheimer’s disease. |
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Between the Cerebral Cortex & Spinal Cord. Contains medulla, pons, and midbrain. contains structures involved in movement making of visual stimuli, and sound-related reflexes
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between forebrain and hind brain
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| balance & motor movements |
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controls vital functions: heartbeat & breathing
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connects cerebral cortex to cerebellum. Contains structures involved in movement, tracking of visual stimuli, and sound-related reflexes
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| Reticular Activating System |
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| helps us to know what to be alert for |
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Cushions brain against impact. provide nutrients for the brain & spinal cord
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| Part of PNS. Carries messages from CNS to muscles throughout the body that control movement |
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-controls automatic things like heartbeat, blood flow
-Communicates with the boyd’s internal organs via the Limbic System
-2 parts: Sympathetic & parasympathetic
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| emotional arousal, fight or flight, responds in emergency, feels sympathy |
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| calms arousal returns organism to baseline, active during rest, ‘PARAmedics’ arrive to calm & fix crisis |
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-Set of brain structures dedicated to processing emotion
-Includes: hypothalamus, amygdala, cingulated cortex, hippocampus
-Endocrine system: pituitary & adrenal glands, sex hormones
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-Involved in: excitement, arousal, fear
-Fear conditioning: learning to anticipate something scary
-deciphers social signals related to reward & threat
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-Buried between the two hemispheres
-active when we express emotion
-regulates autonomic NS
-complex social situations
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memory formation; create & hold onto memories
-spatial abilities
-Damage to this region prevents new memories from being shared.
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Case Study: H.M. (1926-2008)
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-early 20s, epileptic
-cut corpus callosum : hippocampus damaged
-couldn’t remember anything after surgery
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Made up of: glands & hormones that control release of chemical messengers into blood to communicate w/. far out tissues
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| controlled by the hypothalamus and directs/communicates with other glands in the body (thyroid, adrenals, pituitary) |
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-Located on top of kidneys
-Adrenaline: causes changes that increase blood flow & air intake, vision & muscle activity
-cortisol: secreted in response to stress; acts in a similar fashion
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| Sexual Reproductive Glands |
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-Testes & ovaries (respectively)
-Manufacture estrogen & testosterone (both present in each)
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| involved in fertility & sustaining a pregnancy |
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| increases male sex drive (& maybe women) |
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-Form the myelin sheath (speeds up message) around axons
-speed up message delivery
-blood brain barrier
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| space between 2 neurons chemical neurotransmission. type of glial cell |
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How messages are sent within the neuron
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tension, discomfort, or physical symptoms that arise when a situation strains our ability to copy effectively.
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| initial decision regarding whether an event is harmful |
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| receptions regarding our ability to cope w/. an event that follow primary appraisal (ex: how to cope) |
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belief that we can’t cope
>full blown stress reaction = likely
>maladaptive
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tackle life’s challenges head-on
>optimistic
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positive outlook on feelings or situations accompanied by behaviors that reduce painful emotions
>positive spin on things we can’t change
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| minor annoyances or nuisances that strain ability to cope |
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Stage 1 in GAS
excites autonomic nervous symptoms
>triggers emotional brain fear (amygdala)
>triggers HPA Axis > Hypothalamus gets fear, Pituitary gland releases hormones, Adrenaline readies body for response
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Stage 2 in GAS.
adapt to stressor, identify ways to cope
-hippocampus detects danger, opens to cerebral cortex
-thinking brain evaluates situation & finds coping strategies
-slows anxiety symptoms w/. rationalization |
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Stage 3 in GAS
- resistance breaks down, lack of coping mechanisms, body’s reserve of adaptive energy depleted
-can damage organ systems, cause depression and anxiety, breakdown immune system
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| interpret events as threatening, dangerous or uncontrollable |
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| feel helpless/responsible to failure |
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| body’s defense system against bacteria, virus and other illness-producing organisms |
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| disease-producing organisms |
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| study of the relationship between immune systems & central nervous system |
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| Psychophysiological Conditions |
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| emotions & stress contribute to, maintain & aggravate physical conditions |
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| Biopsychosocial Perspective |
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| illness is interplay between bio., psychological, & social incidences. |
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the study of the ability to change & grow
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| biological or physiological factors, genetics, constraints of biology, may be shaped by evolutionary factors |
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| environmental or experiential factors, socialization, learned behaviors, environmental pressures/allowances, |
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| Gene-Environment Interactions |
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| genetic factor and an environmental factor must BOTH be present in order to see an impact. Ex: children being tall if parents are tall & eat healthy-child will be tall most likely. But if parents are tall & doesn’t eat well- probably won’t be taller. Also- obesity. |
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| Some genes may only get ‘turned on’ under certain environmental conditions, which the organism may or may not encounter. |
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| first few days of fertilized eggs |
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| ball of identical cells without specified function |
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| cells differentiating: organs & face take shape |
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| heart beating, development continues so that fetus can survive outside of womb |
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| a variety of environmental facts that can negatively impact prenatal development. Ex: Thalidomide |
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| automatic motor behaviors triggered by specific types of stimulation |
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| Motor Development: Nature |
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-Physical maturation facilitates increasingly steady and controlled movements
-Innately programmed to learn motor skills in a set order
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| Motor Development: Nurture |
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-Experience helps children train their bodies and brains to complete new movements
-Parenting styles cultural practices, infant opportunities for movement
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| Integrating NEW experiences into EXISTING beliefs & way of thinking. “Fitting it into the mold.” Ex: furry & 4 legs & makes noise = dog. Always. Make it fit the mold |
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| Developing NEW ways of thinking to accommodate experiences that don’t fit with EXISTING beliefs. Ex: still furry & 4 legs & makes noise, but it’s a cat. |
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| System of communication using symbols, words, and gestures in a rule-based manner to convey meaning |
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| Categories of sounds our vocal apparatus can make (building blocks) |
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| Smallest unit of sound that contains meaning (think morpheme = meaning) |
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| Grammar; set of ruling governing how we put words together to form sentences |
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| Extralinguistic Information |
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Non-verbal cues
>Ex: body language (posture, gestures), Facial expression, tone of voice, context of conversation
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Babies learn by hearing people speak (at least partially true- learning words of the language)
-disproved by GENERATIVITY |
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| Children are born knowing how language works (“hard-wired”) |
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| Language Acquisition Device |
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| special part of the brain dedicated to learning language |
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| Social Pragmatics Account |
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| Children use context to infer topic of conversation, word meaning |
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| General Cognitive Processing Account |
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| Language isn’t special; just one of the many things that babies develop as the brain develops |
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