Term
| Why is the water molecule a ‘polar’ molecule? |
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Definition
-1 oxygen 2 hydrogen
-Unusual bend with hydrogens on 1 side making it positive (covalent bonds)
-Other side is negative as a result
-Has polarity (opposite charged ends) |
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Term
| What is a hydrogen bond, how does it form, why is it important? |
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Definition
Def- An intermolecular bond that forms within water because of the dipolar nature of water molecules
-5% as strong as covalent bond
-Responsible for many of waters properties
-Water acts like gel |
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Term
| Describe the unique properties of water |
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Definition
-Hydrogen bonds create cohesion (holding water molecules together) which results in high surface tension
-Polar molecules can break up most chemicals resulting in high dissolving power
-Hydrogen bonds absorb lots of energy before they break resulting in high heat capacity (and high melting and boiling points??)
-80 to melt, 540 to vaporize
-Water expands when it freezes decreasing desnity |
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Term
| What is the difference between temperature and heat? |
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Definition
Temperature- a measure of how fast the molecules in a substance are moving
Heat-how much energy has to be put in a substance to change its temperature or state.
Ex. Candle Flame Greater Temperature Hot Bathtub Greater Heat |
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Term
| Describe the arrangement of water molecules as they exist in the gaseous, liquid, and solid states. |
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Definition
Gaseous- water molecules no longer interact with one another except during random collisions, filling the volume of whatever container they are in
Liquid- moleucles interact with each other, can flow past each other and take shape of contianer, intermolecular bond are breaking faster than when in solid
Solid- rigid structure does not flow reluctances remain firmly attached, do not conform to shape of container |
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Term
| Define heat capacity and latent heat |
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Definition
Heat Capacity- the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of any substance by 1 degree centigrade
Latent Heat- energy that it is either absorbed or released as water changes state |
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Term
| How can evaporation occur at temperatures less than 100C |
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Definition
| More calories are required, every molecule that changes state use energy from other molecule and cools it down |
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Term
| What is the difference between sensible and latent heat? |
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Definition
Sensible Heat is what we sense from different temperatures
Latent Heat- energy needed to change state |
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Term
| Water has thermostatic properties. Why? How does that affect coastal climates ? Why is it important around Antarctica? |
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Definition
It can moderate changes of temperature, because for example when you freeze ice it releases latent heat
-Coastal climate don't vary as a result and continents (with low heat capacity do)
-Antartica? look-up? |
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Term
| Describe how the density of pure water changes with decreasing temperature. Where is the point of maximum density? Why is ice less dense than liquid water? |
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Definition
| -Density increases while temperature decreases until a mas at 4 degrees because molecules slow down and move closer together. After 4 degrees they start to line up to freeze and because of hydrogen bonds they expand by 9% when they freeze |
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Term
| What are the effects of adding salts to water? |
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Definition
-Raises its boiling point
-Evaporates more slowly
-Lower the freezing point
-Temp of Max Dens moves toward freezing point
-Density increases as a function of salinity |
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Term
| What are the factors controlling the density of water |
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Definition
-Temperature
-Salinity (not as much in the open ocean) |
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Term
| How do temperature and salinity affect density of seawater? |
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Definition
| Density increases as temperature decreases and salinity increases |
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Term
| What are the 3 density zones in the ocean? Describe them. |
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Definition
Surface Zone- 2% of Ocean- Mixed layer- down depths 150-300 meters- characterized by high temp
Pycnocline- 18% -Layer of water that has the maximum change in density over depth seals off the surface completely from the rest of the ocean Prevents exchange of water between surf and deep.Depth of 1k m and with surface does not cover all of ocean
Deep Zone- Uniform temp and salinty 80% of ocean, at high lat touches surface |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Define the pycnocline, thermocline, and halocline |
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Definition
Pycnocline- ends at 1000 meter, layer of rapidly changing density
Thermocline- Layer of rapidly changing temperature around from around 300 - 1000 meters
Halocline- Layer of rapidly changing salinity with depth |
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Term
| Where in the oceans does the thermocline mainly contribute to the pycnocline and where does the halocline? |
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Definition
The thermocline is strongest at tropical latitudes and weakest at high latitudes
Halocline is more important at high latitudes and close to rivers |
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Term
| How does the thermocline change with latitude? |
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Definition
| It weakens and disappears as latitude increases |
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Term
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Definition
| Water Mass- body of water with characteristic temperature and salinity |
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Term
| How can two water masses mix in the ocean? |
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Definition
| Think of iso pycno graph. To waters with same desnity but diffrent salinity and temp can mix at same depth. Result is right in the middle. With great density Kaballing |
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Term
| Where in the oceans is sea surface temperature (SST) higher? Why? |
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Definition
| In the lower latitudes to the west because of Surface circulation (look up) |
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Term
| Why is surface salinity higher in the Atlantic Ocean than in the Pacific Ocean? |
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Definition
| -Because evaporation occurs and steals the Atlantic's freshwater and the westerlies move it to the Pacific |
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Term
| What is light? What determines the color of light? |
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Definition
Light- a form of electromagnetic radiation
It's wavelength determines its color
Violet shorter, red Longer |
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Term
| Describe how the intensity of light changes with depth in seawater. How does the spectrum of different wavelengths change with depth? |
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Definition
Wavelengths can't make it that far down, longer ones leave first. Red goes first
Blue and green reach deeper depths that's why ocean is blue (only reach 100 meters) |
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Term
| What is the photic zone? What is the aphotic zone? |
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Definition
Photic Zone- Area of Ocean that has light (only reaches 100 m)
Aphotic Zone- Has no light |
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Term
| What is sound? What factors control the velocity of sound in seawater? |
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Definition
Sound- A form of energy transmitted by rapid pressure change
Velocity increases with higher temp and pressure |
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Term
| How does the velocity of sound change with depth in oceans? Draw the profile |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the SOFAR channel? Why is sound trapped in this layer of the ocean? |
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Definition
Where there is minimum sound velocity sound is trapped and can travel for very long distances.
-Atlantic 1,200 M Pacific 600 M
-It's stuck there because the top half of the wave will speed up and the bottom is still moving slow swinging the wave back into the sofar zone |
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Term
| How is a sound shadow zone created in the ocean? |
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Definition
| Sound bends away from maximum velocity layer (think opposite of Sofar), if sub knows where ship is they can hide there |
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Term
| Why is the Heard Island Experiment important? |
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Definition
Scientists are running experiments how long it takes sound to get to other locations (change only caused by change of temp)
It seems to be shortening. Higher velocity it appears that temp is increasing
Heard Island is the point where sound are originating |
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Term
| What is the atmosphere? What are its major components? |
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Definition
Atmosphere- the volume of gases, water vapor, and airborne particles surrounding the earth
-Mostly Nitrogen
-Close to quarter oxygen
-Sliver C02 |
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Term
| How is air density influenced by temperature and water content? Why? |
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Definition
-warmer air is less dense than cool air
-humid air is less dense then dry air |
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Term
| What happens, in terms of temperature and water content, to air when it rises from sea level to higher altitudes? And when it descends from higher altitudes to sea level? |
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Definition
-becomes cooler when it expands- less P
-becomes warmer when it is compressed more P
-Warm air can hold more water vapor |
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Term
| How does the solar radiation received by the Earth vary as a function of latitude? Why? |
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Definition
| Solar radiation spreads out and is less intense at higher latitudes. Because of angle it hits |
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Term
| What keeps the Earth in balance (what distributes heat to higher latitudes)? |
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Definition
| Air circulation, warm air is heated up at the equator, making low pressure. It moves and drops the heat at high pressure zone at equator. (simplified) |
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Term
| Describe (and draw) the one cell model of atmospheric circulation. What are the main assumptions for this model? |
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Definition
[image] Clouds and rain at equator cause as air cools it gives off water |
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Term
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Definition
[image] 0 Degree Low Latitude Doldrums Low 0-30 Hadley Cell 30 Degree Horst Latitude High 30-60 Ferrel Cell 60 Degree Polar Front Low 60-90 Polar Cell 90High Precip at Low; Evap at High |
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Term
| How do high and low pressure zones affect climate? |
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Definition
High Pressure areas are Deserts
Low are filled with vegatation |
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Term
| What are the names, directions, and latitude ranges of the major prevailing wind systems in the Northern and Southern hemisphere? |
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Definition
Trade Winds 0-30 Towards Equator and West
Prevailing Westerlies 30-60 East and Towards 60 Degree
60-90 Polar Easterlies West and Towards 60 |
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Term
| What is the Coriolis effect? What creates it? |
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Definition
| Apparent Force- caused by rotation of Earth. Everything North cuts to right, and South goes left. Zero at equaotr |
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Term
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Definition
| Gyre- Circular motion of water as a result of Ekman and Coriolis. |
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Term
| What is the Ekman spiral? How is it created? What are the forces involved? |
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Definition
| A steady wind blowing over an ocean of unlimited depth and breadth and of uniform viscosity. The result is a surface flow at 45 deg to the right of teh wind in the Northern Hemisphere. Water at increasing depth will drift in teh direction increasingly to ther right until at about 100 meters depth it moves opposite direction. Net transport is 90 degrees to right. |
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Term
| What is the Ekman transport? |
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Definition
| –Overall direction in which the water is moving (within the ekman layer) at 90 degrees angle to the right of the direction of the wind (In Northern Hemisphere). |
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Term
| Explain how and why the Ekman transport creates a sea surface topography. Where are hills and depressions formed? |
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Definition
Equatorial Current goes West (except counter current which really doesn't do anything)
Western Boundary Current (West side of geyer)
Eastern Boundary Currents
Water moves 90 from wind.
Hills 30 NaS Valleys 60 NaS |
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Term
| How are geostrophic currents created? What are the forces involved? Why surface currents flow clockwise around a high (hill) in the N hemisphere and counterclockwise around a low (depression)? |
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Definition
| Result of Ekman Transport creating hills and valleys. Water follows gravity in or out of valley or hill and Coriolis turns it depending on Hemisphere |
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Term
| Draw a diagram and label the names of currents in each of the major subtropical gyres |
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Definition
| See Slide.... Seriously do it, you know this will be a question |
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Term
| Is there a difference in how shallow or deep the surface currents are in the subtropical and subpolar gyres? Why? |
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Definition
| Gyres are deeper and Taller in the subtropics because coriolis isn't as strong |
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Term
| Why is there an equatorial countercurrent? In which direction does it flow? |
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Definition
| Because so much water is transported by the equatorial currents that it builds up on the west coasts and the force of gravity causes it to fall and head east |
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Term
| What is the phenomenon of western intensification? What creates it? |
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Definition
| Western boundary currents are a result of Earth's rotation and cause the western boundary current of all subtropical gyres to be fast, narrow, and deep |
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Term
| What is the difference between western and eastern boundary currents? |
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Definition
Western Boundary Currents- Narrow Deep Up to 2Km- Fast 100km/day Transport large amount
Eastern Boundary Currents are Wide, shallow .5km, slow 10km/day and small transport |
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Term
| How do surface currents affect coastal climate? Can you give an example? |
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Definition
| Warm West Currents Heat up Air cause it to be muggy, Cold East Currents cool air and dry it. Ex. DC is muggy and hot |
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Term
| What are upwelling and downwelling? What causes them? |
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Definition
Upwelling-movement of deep water to the surface
-moves cold, nutrient rich water to the surface
-causes high productivity
Downwelling-movement of surface water down
-moves warm, nutrient poor, water down
-not associated with high productivity
Water does not cross pycnocline or thermocline |
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Term
| Describe how equatorial upwelling occurs |
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Definition
| At equator Coriolis deflects all the water away, leaving a void filled by upwelling |
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Term
| Describe how coastal upwelling or downwelling occur. |
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Definition
Coastal Upwelling- Ekman Transport moves surface water away from shore. Deep water fills it in.
Coastal Downwelling- Ekman transport pushes water into shore and water wants to flow so warm water flows down |
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Term
| Why is the circulation around Antarctica unique? Describe the circulation pattern of the West Wind Drift (Antarctic Circumpolar Current). What causes it? |
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Definition
It circumscribes Earth.
-West Wind Drift caused by westerlies encircles Antarctica and flows West to East Screaming 60ies Furious Fifites Roaring Forities
-Transports 130 Million cubic meters per second |
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Term
| What is the thermohaline circulation? Why is it called thermohaline? |
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Definition
-Density Driven Water Flow
-Affects water below the pycnocline
-Slow Circulation
-Deep water currents move large volumes of water
-called thermohaline because density and salinity together determine density of seawater |
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Term
| What are water masses? Where are they formed (surface vs deeper in the water column)? How can you identify them? |
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Definition
Water Mass- a body of water identifiable by its temperature and salinity (therefore its density)
-Formed on the surface in High Latitude Oceans |
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Term
| Where is deep water formed? |
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Definition
| At the Poles (and at the Mediterranean) anywhere where you can make water more dense |
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Term
| How are deep water masses formed? |
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Definition
| They are cooled at high latitudes drop because they are denser to certain depth and driven by water behind them |
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Term
| Why deep waters mainly form in the Atlantic Ocean? |
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Definition
| Because it is saltier and also because the pacific ocean can't reach high latitudes |
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Term
| What are the main characteristics of the AABW? |
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Definition
-Most important source of bottom water in the ocean
-59% of worlds ocean
-Flows equatorward and is densest mass
-Brings oxygenated cold water as far as 50 Degrees N |
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Term
| AABW How is it formed and where? |
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Definition
1. Freezing seawater squeezes out salt
2. Water below becomes heavier with added salt and sinks
3. Dense cold antarctic body water moves toward equator
4. Warmer water moves south towards Antarctica
5. Heat Vents into the air |
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Term
| What are the main characteristics of the NADW? How is it formed and where? |
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Definition
-Forms mainly in winter, Warm Salty Atlantic water moves North and cools and becomes NADW. Mainly formed in winter.
-T= 3 C S= 34.9 |
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Term
| What happens to these currents after they are formed? Where do they travel to in the Atlantic Ocean? What about the Pacific and Indian Ocean? |
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Definition
Flow until they are upwelled
-Flow South in Atlantic ocean
-South to South Ocean, move east there up to indian ocean and Pacific |
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Term
| What is the Pacific Common Water (CoW)? |
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Definition
| Mixed North Atlantic Deep Water and Antarctic Bottom water mix. Found in pacific and Indian ocean. Mixing caused by western wind drift |
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Term
| How is the Mediterranean Intermediate Water formed? |
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Definition
| Water travels east into Mediterranean is very salty, after evaporation it sinks under and travels west towards Caribbeans. No north south movement |
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Term
| 11. Describe briefly the global flow of surface and deep currents (conveyor belt) in the oceans. What are some of the important consequences of this global flow? |
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Definition
-Initiated in the North Atlantic Ocean, where warm water cools and sinks below the surface. This water moves southward as a subsurface flow and joins water near Antarctica. This deep water spreads into the Indian and Pacific Oceans, where it slowly rises and completes the conveyer as it travels along the surface into the NOrth Atlantic Ocean
-It transports oxygen rich cold water which picks up nutrients allow for life in the deep ocean and it helps regulate climate |
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Term
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Definition
| A disturbance caused by the movement of energy from a source through a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) |
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Term
| What is a progressive wave? What is a standing wave? |
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Definition
Progressive Wave- Wave moves forward but water does not
Standing Wave- moves up and down but no progress |
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Term
| What is a progressive wave? What is a standing wave? |
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Definition
Progressive Wave- Wave moves forward but water does not
Standing Wave- moves up and down but no progress. Reflect at right angle. |
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Term
| How do water particles move as a wave goes by? How does this orbital motion change with depth? |
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Definition
| They move in a circle, with depth the size of the circle they move gets smaller until it disappears at a depth of 1/2 wavelenght |
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Term
| Draw a wave form and label and define wavelength, wave height, crest, trough, period, celerity, and frequency. |
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Definition
[image] Period= Time it takes one full wave to past a point Frequency= 1/Period Celerity= Wavelength/Period |
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Term
| What is a disturbing or generating force? |
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Definition
-What releases energy that creates waves
ex.
-Wind- wind waves
-Movement of fluids of different densities- internal waves
-underwater sea-floor movement (tsunami)
-Pull of moon and sun (tides) |
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Term
| What is a restoring force? What is the restoring force for capillary and wind waves? |
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Definition
Restoring Force- what returns the water surface to flatness
Capillary- Surface tension |
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Term
| What is a free wave? What is a forced wave? |
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Definition
Free Wave-a wave the propagates across the ocean without further influence of the generating force
Forced wave- a wave that is maintained by its generating force |
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Term
| What is a deep water wave? Describe the motion of water particles in deep waves. At what depth the wave stops being a deep water wave and starts to feel the bottom? |
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Definition
| Waves where the water particles move in this very nice ciruclar orbit, any time the water depth is bigger than half the wavelength |
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Term
| What is a shallow water wave? Describe the motion of water particles in shallow waves. At what depth the wave starts being a shallow water wave? |
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Definition
-Waves interact with the seafloor
-Have elliptical orbits (eventually just move back and forth)
-Occur when Depth is <1/20 of wavelength |
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Term
|
Definition
| C=(L/T) = 1.25 sqrt(L) = 1.56T L=1.56T^2 |
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Term
| Shallow Water Wave Formulas |
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Definition
| C=(L/T)=3.13sqrt(d) Until wave breaks at H/L = 1/7 |
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Term
| The amount of energy transferred to the ocean by winds depends on? |
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Definition
| -Wind Speed -Wind Duration in same direction -Fetch (an area of of the ocean where your wind can blow) or the distance over which the wind blows in one direction. |
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Term
| Where would you expect to find the largest waves? Why? |
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Definition
| Southern Ocean because of the West Wind Drift and Infinite Fetch |
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Term
| A strong and persistent wind is blowing over an area of the oceans for ~ 3 days. Describe how wind waves are generated, from capillary waves to swells. |
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Definition
1.Wind roughens up surface so future wind can get a better grip, ripples.
2.Disorganized, short and choppy, messy water called sea
3.Waves break, called white caps, fully developed sea
4. Smoother waves with increased wavelengths travel away called swells. |
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Term
| What is a ‘fully developed sea’? |
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Definition
| The point where waves cannot grow anymore because they lose as much energy breaking as whitecaps from gravity as they receive from the wind |
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Term
| What is a wave train? What is its velocity? |
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Definition
A group of swells generated by the same event and moving across the ocean together
C (Deep water wave) / 2 |
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Term
| What happens to a wave that is approaching the shore? How do celerity, wavelength, period, and height change? |
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Definition
| It interacts with the bottom H increases L Decreases. When H/L > 1/7 it breaks most energy is used in breaking, remaining causes the water to rush upshore (swash) |
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Term
| Which 2 factors affect the appearance (spilling, plunging, surging breakers) of a wave breaking at the shore? |
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Definition
Spilling= gently sloped (flat)
Plunging= Moderately Steep
Surging breakers= Abrupt Steepness |
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Term
| Why do wave refract as they approach a shore? What is the main consequence of wave refraction? Know how to draw a diagram. |
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Definition
| Because of different levels of sea floor along the sure. So they bend to the form of a seafloor (shallow=slower) |
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Term
| How are waves reflected? Know how to draw a diagram |
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Definition
| Vertical barriers, Wave will reflect back at the angle it came in |
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Term
| What is wave diffraction? Why does it occur? Know how to draw a diagram |
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Definition
-The propagation of a wave around an obstacle
-Causes wave to bend so it travels sideways to the direction of the incoming wave |
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Term
| What is a storm surge? How is it originated? How do wind waves interact with it? Under what circumstances can storm surges result in massive coastal flooding? Can you think of an example? |
|
Definition
Storm Surge- an abrupt bulge of water driven ashore by hurricane or frontal storms
-Hurricane (low pressure) produce hill of water beneath it gets higher as approaches coast. Wind waves could interact, also it could be high tide making it massive. Katrina |
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Term
| What are seiches? Where do they occur in the ocean? What is the relationship between wavelength and basin length necessary to have seiche? What are nodes and antinodes? |
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Definition
Seiches-don't propagate in any direction but just oscillate up and down
strong winds blowing in one direction of enclosed ocean area
wave is reflected at right angle
-wavelength is a multiple of basin's length
-Nodes don't move -Antinodes go from being crest to troughs |
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Term
| What are internal waves? Where do they occur and why? Compare them to surface waves. |
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Definition
| Internal Waves- Occur within the water column at boundaries between densities layer (generally pycnocline) can be generated by wind, tide, and ocean current. Slower than surface waves because density difference isn't as big. |
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Term
| What are tsunamis? How are they generated? Why are they considered shallow water waves? Why are they difficult to detect in the open ocean? Where would you expect tsunamis to be generated? |
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Definition
Tsunami-Large waves
Generated by seismic sea waves
They're massive wavelength (200 km)makes them always shallow water.
Difficult to detect because of short height in ocean .5 meter
-Expect to be generated by fault points moving vertically |
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Term
| How do people try to prevent the catastrophic effects of tsunamis? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| 1. Define tides, tidal period, tidal range, diurnal tides, semi-diurnal tides, semi-diurnal mixed tides, spring tides, and neap tides. |
|
Definition
Tides-Periodic rise and fall of sea surface (forced waves)
Tidal Period- Time between successive high or low tides
Tidal Range- Height difference between high and low tide level
Diurnal tides-One hight one low tide each day
semi-diurnal tides-2 high 2 low tides
Semi-diurnal mixed tides- same is diurnal but unequal high and low tides
Spring Tides-High Tides are very high low tides are very low (2 week interval)
Neap Tides-High tide not very high, low tide not very low (2 week interval) |
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Term
| What are the forces that generate tides? |
|
Definition
-Gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun
-Centrifugal force caused by the rotation of the Earth-Moon system |
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Term
| Why does the Moon exert a greater gravitational effect on the Earth than the Sun? |
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Definition
| Because it is much closer to the Earth |
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Term
| What are the assumptions of the equilibrium tide model? |
|
Definition
1. The Earth has two equal tide bulges: one toward the moon, one away from the moon
2.The Oceans cover the entire earth and are of uniform depth
3. There is no friction between the ocean water and the seafloor
4. The continents have no influence |
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Term
| According to the equilibrium tide model what forces create tides and the tidal bulges? |
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Definition
| Gravitational pull of the moon and centrifugal force |
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Term
| What are the predictions of the equilibrium tide model? |
|
Definition
1) If the moon was above the equator the maximum bulge would occur at the equator beneath the Moon and on the opposite side of the Earth. 12 hr tidal period
2)At higher latitude, the tidal period would be the same, but the tidal amplitudes would be less due to small differences in the distance between those points and the moons center of mass |
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Term
| If you incorporate in the equilibrium model the lunar day, what happens to the tidal period and why? |
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Definition
| Moon moves eastward 12.2 in a day so it would take 24 and 50 minutes to go over the same point so period would be 12 hr 50 minutes |
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Term
| If you incorporate in the equilibrium model the effect of the sun, what happens to tides and why? |
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Definition
| Causes Neap Tides and Spring Tides (spring are higher and when they're lined up) |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some of the problems (why it is not a good predictor for tides) associated with the equilibrium tide model? |
|
Definition
It doesn't reflect reality
-Doesn't factor in continents |
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|
Term
| How does the dynamic tide model consider tides? |
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Definition
| Considers them shallow water waves. Their speed is controlled by the depth of the Ocean and their propagation is modified by the shape and geometry of the ocean basin |
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Term
| How do tides move in a basin according to the dynamic tide model? Describe the amphidromic circulation of tides. What is an amphidromic point? Where do you find the highest tidal range in a basin? |
|
Definition
-Tides move in the basin as rotary waves
-The tidal bulge hits a continent and bounces back, that along with coriolis causes amphidromic circulation. Amphidromic point doesn't move. The highests tidal range will happen in a edges of large oceans, especially in inlets that concentrate tidal energy. |
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Term
| What are some of the effects of the continents on tides? |
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Definition
| The stop the tidal bulge from moving smoothly around earth and create shallow areas in the ocean. |
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Term
| How do tides propagate in a wide and symmetrical basin? |
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Definition
| A miniature amphidromic system develops |
|
|
Term
| How do tides propagate in a narrow and restricted basin? |
|
Definition
-Moves in and out of the bay
- |
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Term
| What is a tidal current? Define flood current, slack water, and ebb current. |
|
Definition
Tidal Current-rise or fall in sea level as a tide crest approaches and passes will cause water to flow into or out of bays and harbors
Flood Current- Water moving into an enclosed area because a tide crest is approaching
Slack Water-At high tide or low tide water stops moving as it changes direction
Ebb Current water moving back out to sea as tide trough approaches (Faster because of gravity) |
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Term
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Definition
| In areas of large tidal range, the high tide may come in as a visible wave, called the tidal bore |
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Term
| Define a tropical cyclone. How do they originate? What fuels them? Where do they form and why? Why do they move westward and northward in the Northern hemisphere? |
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Definition
Tropical Cyclone- Great masses of warm, humid, rotating air
They form from disturbances within a warm and humid air mass they are fuel by air moving to the low pressure zone
-They form in all tropical oceans because they need warm water (above 26C)
-Fueled by evaporation
-They move North West because of Coriolis (and counterclockwise) |
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Term
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Definition
If water is not above 26C and if they hit land
-Storm surges cause most of the dmange |
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