Term
| Explain the steps in which calcium acts as an intracellular messenger. |
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Definition
1) Chemical signals or electrical signals release Ca2+ from intracellular Ca2+ stores
2) Ca2+ in cytosol increases
3) Ca2+ binds to proteins |
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Term
| What are the roles of nitric oxide? |
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Definition
1) Activates guanylyl cyclase (forms cGMP)
2) Acts as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in the brain |
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Term
| What is responsible for the production of nitric oxide? |
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Definition
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Term
| After nitric oxide is produce, where does it go? |
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Definition
| 1) Diffuses into smooth muscle and causes vasodilation |
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Term
| What is the role of carbon monoxide? |
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Definition
1) Activates guanylyl cyclase and cGMP
2) Targets smooth muscle and neural tissue |
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Term
| What is the role of hydrogen sulfide? |
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Definition
| 1) Targets cardiovascular system |
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Term
| What vegetable is important in the formation of hydrogen sulfide? |
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Definition
| 1) Garlic is major source of precursors |
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Term
| In the CNS, hydrogen sulfide functions not only as a __________ but also as a __________ against oxidative stress. |
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Definition
1) Neuromodulator
2) Neuroprotectant |
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Term
| How does hydrogen sulfide help to maintain appropriate blood pressure and prevent vessel structural remodeling? |
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Definition
| 1) In the cardiovascular system, hydrogen sulfide relaxes vascular smooth muscle by the activation of KATP channels and inhibits smooth muscle cell proliferation via the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway |
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Term
| __________ play a role in asthma and anaphylaxis. |
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Definition
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Term
| What are three types of prostanoids? |
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Definition
1) Prostaglandins
2) Thromboxanes
3) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) |
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Term
| What are the role of prostaglandins? |
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Definition
| 1) Mediate sleep, inflammation, pain, and fever |
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Term
| What are the role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)? |
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Definition
| 1) They help prevent inflammation by inhibiting cyclooxgenase (COX) |
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Term
| What is the alpha receptor responsible for? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the beta receptor responsible for? |
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Definition
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Term
| A __________ __________ and __________ activate a receptor, where an __________ blocks receptor activity. |
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Definition
1) Primary ligand
2) Agonist
3) antagonist |
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Term
| a-receptors are concentrated on __________ blood vessels and when paired with epinephrine, cause a vessel to __________. |
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Definition
1) Intestinal
2) Constrict |
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Term
| a-receptors are concentrated on what type of blood vessel? What occurs when they are paired with epinephrine? |
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Definition
1) Intestinal
2) Vessel constricts |
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Term
| b-receptors are concentrated on __________ __________ blood vessels and when paired with epinephrine, cause a vessel to __________. |
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Definition
1) Skeletal muscle
2) Dilate |
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Term
| b-receptors are concentrated on what type of blood vessel? What occurs when they are paired with epinephrine? |
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Definition
1) Skeletal muscle
2) Vessel dilates |
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Term
| What are two ways in which down-regulation of a signal pathway occurs? |
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Definition
1) By decreasing the number of receptors
2) By decreasing the binding affinity |
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Term
| What are Cannon's postulates for control systems? |
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Definition
1) Nervous regulation of internal environment
2) Tonic control
3) Antagonistic control
4) One chemical signal can have different effects in different tissues |
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Term
| __________ __________ regulates the physiological parameters in an up-down fashion. |
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Definition
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Term
| How does tonic control regulate physiological parameters? |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ __________ control heart rate: some speed it up, others slow it down. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the role of antagonistic neurons? |
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Definition
1) Control heart rate:
Sympathetic - Speed up
Parasympathetic - Slow down |
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Term
| What are the steps in a reflex control pathway? |
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Definition
1) Stimulus
2) Sensor or receptor
3) Afferent pathway
4) Integrating center
5) Efferent pathway
6) Target or effector
7) Response |
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Term
| What are the two type of receptors that are possible? |
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Definition
1) Cell membrane or intracellular receptor proteins
2) Specialized cells or structures that convert various stimuli into electrical signals |
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Term
| __________ __________ are in or close to the brain, while __________ __________ lie outside the brain. |
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Definition
1) Central receptors
2) Peripheral receptors |
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Term
| What are four examples of central receptors? |
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Definition
1) Eyes (vision)
2) Ears (hearing)
3) Nose (smell)
4) Tongue (taste) |
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Term
| What are four examples of peripheral receptors? |
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Definition
1) Chemoreceptors
2) Osmoreceptors
3) Thermoreceptors
4) Baroreceptors
5) Proprioreceptors
6) Other mechanoreceptors |
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Term
__________ refers to natural adaptation;
__________ refers to induced adaptation. |
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Definition
1) Acclimization
2) Acclimation |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| __________ control refers to anticipatory responses. |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the steps of a negative feedback loop? |
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Definition
1) Initial stimulus
2) Response
3) Stimulus |
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Term
| What are the steps of a positive feedback loop? |
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Definition
1) Initial stimulus
2) Response
3) Stimulus
4) Response -> Stimulus continual loop |
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Term
| What are the steps of a positive feedback loop for uterine contractions? |
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Definition
1) Cervical stretching
-Stimulates-
2) Oxytocin release
-Causes-
3) Uterine contractions
4) Push baby against cervice
-Cycle repeats- |
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Term
| __________ __________ is lowest in the early morning and peaks in the night. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ __________ is lowest during sleep and peaks shortly after awakening. |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the sensors / receptors for neural reflexes? For neuoendocrine reflexes? For endocrine reflexes? |
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Definition
1) Special and somatic sensory receptors
2) Special and somatic sensory receptors
3) Endocrine cell |
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Term
| What are the afferent pathway receptors for neural reflexes? For neuroendocrine reflexes? For endocrine reflexes? |
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Definition
1) Afferent sensory neuron
2) Afferent sensory neuron
3) None |
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Term
| What are the integrating centers for neural reflexes? For neuorendocrine reflexes? For endocrine reflexes? |
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Definition
1) Brain or spinal cord
2) Brain or spinal cord
3) Endocrine cell |
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Term
| What is the efferent pathway for neural reflexes? For neuroendocrine reflexes? For endocrine reflexes? |
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Definition
1) Efferent neuron (electrical signal and neurotransmitter)
2) Efferent neuron (electrical signal and neurohormone)
3) Hormone |
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Term
| What are the effectors for neural reflexes? For neuroendocrine reflexes? For endocrine reflexes? |
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Definition
1) Muscles and glands, some adipose tissues
2) Most cells of the body
3) Most cells of the body |
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Term
| What are the responses for neural reflexes? For neuorendocrine reflexes? For endocrine reflexes? |
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Definition
1) Contraction and secretion primarily
2) Change in enzymatic reactions, membrane transport, or cell proteins
3) Change in enzymatic reactions, membrane transport, or cell proteins |
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Term
There are two basic types of physiological signals: __________ and __________.
__________ signals are the basis for most communication within the body. |
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Definition
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Chemical |
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Term
| What are the four methods of cell-to-cell communicaiton? |
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Definition
1) Direct cytoplasmic transfer through gap junctions
2) Contact-dependent signaling
3) Local chemical communication
4) Long-distance communication |
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Term
__________ __________ are protein channels that connect two adjacent cells.
When they are open, chemical and electrical signals pass directly from one cell to the next. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________-__________ __________ require direct contact between surface molecules of two cells. |
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Definition
| 1) Contact-dependent signals |
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Term
| Local communication uses __________ __________, chemicals that act on cells close to the cell that secreted the paracrine. |
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Definition
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Term
| A chemical that acts on the cell that secreted it is called an __________ __________. |
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Definition
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Term
| Long-distance communication uses __________ molecules and electrical signals in the nervous systems, and __________ in the endocrine system. Only cells that possess receptors for a hormone will be __________ cells. |
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Definition
1) Neurocrine
2) Hormones
3) Target |
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Term
| __________ are regulatory peptides that control cell development, differentiation, and the immune response. They serves as both __________ and __________-__________ signals. |
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Definition
1) Cytokines
2) Local
3) Long-distance |
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Term
| Chemical signals bind to __________ and change intracellular signal molecules that direct the response. |
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Definition
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Term
__________ signal molecules enter the cell and combine with cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors.
__________ signal molecules and some lipophilic molecules combine with membrane receptors. |
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Definition
1) Lipophilic
2) Lipophobic |
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Term
| __________ __________ pathways use membrane receptor proteins and intracellular second messenger molecules to translate signal information into an intracellular response. |
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Definition
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Term
| Some signal transduction pathways active __________ _________. Others activate __________ __________ that create second messenger molecules. |
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Definition
1) Protein kinases
2) Amplifier enzymes |
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Term
| Signal pathways create intracellular __________ that amplify the original signal. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________-__________ activate protein kinases, such as tyrosine kinase, or the amplifier enzyme __________ __________ which produces the second messenger cGMP. |
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Definition
1) Receptor-enzymes
2) Gyanlyl cyclase |
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Term
| __________ __________ linked to amplifier enzymes are the most prevalent signals transduction system. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ __________-__________ __________ alter ion channels. |
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Definition
| 1) G protein-coupled receptors |
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Term
In the __________ __________-__________ __________ __________ pathway, the amplifier enzyme phosholipase C creates two second messengers: __________ and __________.
__________ causes Ca2+ release from intracellular stores.
__________ activates protein kinase C. |
|
Definition
1) G protein-coupled phospholipase C
2) IP3
3) Diacylglycerol (DAG)
4) IP3
5) DAG |
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Term
| __________ receptors link the extracellular matrix to the cytoskeleton. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________-__________ __________ __________ open or close to create electrical signals. |
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Definition
| 1) Ligand-gated ion channels |
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Term
| Calcium is an important signal molecule that binds to __________ to alter enzyme activity. |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three short-lived gaseous signal molecules? |
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Definition
1) Nitric oxide (NO)
2) Carbon monoxide (MO)
3) Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) |
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Term
| The arachidonic acid cascade creates lipid signal molecules, such as __________, __________, and __________. |
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Definition
1) Leukotrienes
2) Prostaglandins
3) Thromboxanes |
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Term
| The response of a cell to a signal molecule is determined by the cell's __________ for the signal. |
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Definition
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Term
| Receptors come in related forms called __________. |
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Definition
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Term
| A receptor may have multiple __________. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ mimic the action of a signal molecule. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ block the signal pathway of a molecule. |
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Definition
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Term
| In __________-__________, a cell decreases the number of binding receptors. |
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Definition
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Term
| In __________, the cell decreases the binding affinity of the receptors. |
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Definition
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Term
| Many diseases have been linked to defects in various aspects of signal pathways, such as __________ or __________ receptors. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________-__________ is the opposite of down-regulation and involves increasing the number of receptors for a signal. |
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Definition
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Term
| In __________ control pathways, the decision to respond to a change is made by an integrating center. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ __________ is faster and more specific than endocrine control, but is usually of shorter duration. |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ __________ is less specific and slower to start but is longer lasting and is usually amplified. |
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Definition
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