1929. Wlater Cannon. gave evidence that similar patterns of physiological arousal accompany number of emotions, thus emotions have to be more than just sensations of arousal. Cannon-Bard theory states, when a person faces an emotion-arousing event, nerve impulses first pass through the thalamus, then message splits: half goes to cerebral cortex, where it produces subjective experience of fear/anger/happiness; other half goes to hypothalamus, which commands body's physiological changes. psychological experience of emotion and physiological reactions are simultaneous. this theory was not correct, but did bring the origination of emotion back to brain from peripheral organs, which is better than James-Lange

1937. James W. Papez. emotion is a function not of specific brain "centers", but of circuitry. called this circuit the "stream of feeling", also proposed a "stream of movement" relaying sensations through the thalamus to the corpus striatum, and a "stream of thought", relaying sensations through thalamus to major parts of cerebral cortex. In the merging of these streams, Papez said, "sensory excitations…receive their emotional coloring." many details of this outline have proved to be incorrect

Limbic region

("animal brain")

Frontal Lobes

(in relation to emotion)

1. Sympathetic division: mobilizes body's resources and energy (ex: fight or flight)

2. Parasympathetic division: works to conserve bodily energy and resources

nonspecific response of the body to any demand. is not always bad, challenges/changes that engender stress provide opportunities for developing new strengths and skills

onslaught of many stressful events, if pronged is harmful to animals. can make it difficult/impossible for organism to adapt

1. alarm: sympathetic nervous system aroused; causes body to resist

2. resistance: if successful, body returns to normal. if unsuccessful, results in exhaustion

3. exhaustion: if psychological = breakdown. if physical = death

1. aquire information

2. retain it

3. retreive it

(active process. knowledge is always changing and being examined and reformulated by thinking)

1. unobservable mental processes need to be translated into obervable behavior

2. requires this behavior to be measured reliably

3. behavior be shown to vary systematically with other variables and experimental conditions

(if these requirements cannot be fulfulled, truthfulness of memory is questionable)

short term memory. info is held in for only a few seconds, long enough to do something with that info

(ex: memorizing 7 digits of a phone number long enough to write it down/dial it)

lasts seconds to minutes, possibly longer. not easily manipulated

(ex: grocery list passed on to a roommate for them to go do the shopping)

ability to plan behavior and engage in abstract thought, as well as site of working memory. represent higher-order cognitive behaviors that in some ways oversee the operation of brain as a whole

permanent info storage. info transferred into long-term memory from short-term memory. repetition transforms info from short term to long term. depends on cortex after info has been processed further by the temporal lobe

(ex: names of best friends, name of elementary school)

if material to be held in working memory has to do with where an object is.

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is called into action

involved with hippocampus in dealing with long-term memory

physical and psychological changes that transpire as the brain organizes and reconstructs information that may eventually become a pat o the permanent memory. hippocampus plays major part, as well as entorhinal cortex.

(ex: difference between "b" and "d" is direction of loops. once letter recognition is mastered, reorganized memory allows you to recognize those letters without retrieving such clues)

people unable to recall events of their lives much before age of 3 or 4 years

1. how long we must remember them for (ex: seconds, minutes, months, years)

2. what is it we have to remember (ex: places, objects, names)

3. how old we are when we are first epxosed to whatever it is we have to remember

knowledge that is consciously retrievable. described by Squire as providing "an explicit, accessible record of individual previous experiences, a sense of familiarity about those experiences." requires processing in temporal region

knowledge of how to do something, even if we lack awareness of what it is that we are doing. does NOT require processing in temporal region. probably developed earlier in evolution

(ex: habituation and classical conditioning)

schemes to aid in storing and recalling memories. distinction between procedural and declarative memory. basically anything that helps you become consciously aware of something that you have just learned will make it more likely you will remember that info at a later time

consist of visualizing a familiar location and then, in your mind's eye placing things to be remembered (ex. points that you want to make in a speech) at prominent places along the route. when the time comes, you mentally revisit the place, retrace your path, and find at sac location the item you placed there. uses context for organizing declarative information.

behaviors that an animal or person voluntarily and spontaneously performs. operant and classical forms of implicit memory because we have no conscious awareness of having been conditioned. operant behavior results in attainment of something that the organism likes tends to be repeated, operate behavior that results in something organism dislikes tends not to be repeated

person cannot form new memories, although memories of past are intact as is case with H.M. 1) cannot find their way around familiar environments or remember where objects and belongings are 2) are not oriented in place and time 3) cannot learn new info, cannot easily tell you what they saw on television today or whom they talked on the phone and what was said

ability to remember specific instances or episodes in which both place and time are important. no context

characterized by disordered thinking nd behaving, perceptual distortions, and gross delusions

a disease caused by dietary insufficiency of the B vitamin niacin. accounted for 10% of admissions to asylums in southern U.S. where corn was major dietary staple (corn niacin is especially hard to digest). symptoms of pellagra include delirium, confusion, and general disorientation, accompanied by periods of mania

late stage in infection of brain by syphilis. can be treated with antibiotics. bacteria destroys large parts of brains and spinal cords.

specific set of signs and symptoms that are seen together often enough for doctors to consider them a consistent diagnostic entity

something is wrong, but without enough consistency in features to be recognizable from patient to patient.

study of cellular dysfunctions that cause disease

person's abnormal behavior clearly interferes with his or her normal functioning, but no organic cause can be discerned

examination of the nervous system after death, provides direct physical evidence of nature and extent of a disease

state of being aware of our thoughts and behaviors

 awareness of one's own mental or physical actions or both

a product of what the brain does; not synonymous with consciousness but with the working of the brain as a whole. most takes place in cerebral cortex

provides for range of functions that contribute to working memory, planning, foresight, time estimation, use of strategies, and cognitive flexibility (ex: ability to develop a way of doing things in a mindset, and then change that set easily). also helps with time management and planning for the future. extensive damage can produce loss of long-term memory (inability to retrieve such memories)

consists of 100 or so vertical interreltaed neruons that span cortex's horizontal layers. size generally the same. virtually identical. consists of:

1) target neurons that receive their major input from subcortical structures (ex: specific sensory and motor nuclei of thalamus)

2) target neurons that receive major input from other regions of the cortex

3) local-circuit neurons that connect the cells making up the mini column

4) output neurons that send messages from the minicolumn back to thalamus or to other cortical regions or to targets in limbic system

several minicolumns connected with each other function as larger composite called

believes columns to be fundamental info-processing units of cortex, according to number of constituent minicolumns and their way of packing

a system in which info flow may follow a number of different pathways and in which the dominance of one path or another is a dynamic and changing property of the system.

the internally generated information (memories, emotions, cognitive skills)

cables of neurons that connect the two hemispheres at several points

tube in neck to anesthetize half of brain - used to see which side speech is on for patients about to undergo brain surgery so surgeons can avoid trauma to that area

specific area adjacent to area of the motor cortex that controls the muscles of the face, tongue, jaw, and throat

specific impairment in producing sounds of speech, even though language ability remains normal

upper, posterior part of left temporal lobe. important in language comprehension. sound of word is received in primary auditory cortex, but processed message must pass through adjacent Wernicke's area of sound is to be understood as language

damage to Wernicke's area; trouble understanding language

general term for a disturbance of language; can take many forms: difficulty in producing speech sounds, inability to produce meaningful speech even when sounds are correct, breakdown in comprehension of speech sounds, etc.

collection of nerve fibers connecting Wernicke's area and Broca's area

unable to hear differences among these sound units and thus cannot recognize the written version of them (cannot "hear" words on a page). may be due to damage to thalamus, causes problems in distinguishing differences in phonemes

smalls unit of sound that can stand alone, ex: /ba/, /ga/, or /pa/

thinking, perception, perception, and problem solving

tools that permit visualization of the workings of the brain

tests whose purpose is to study behavior for purpose of clarifying which brain activities are regulated by which brain structures. completely noninvasive and relatively inexpensive, however do not permit direct examination of brain, provide at best an indirect assessment of structure-function relations

refers to recording of brain's magnetic activity. perform some mental task, MET is recorded as each stimulus is presented. excellent temporal resolution. surpasses ERPs in having excellent spatial resolution if source of magnetic activity lies tangential to surface of scalp. but if deep in a sulcus, inferring underlying source is difficult. cost can be considerable bc of sensitive material

upper surface of temporal lobe is larger in musicians who have perfect pitch than in non musicians or den musicians lacking in perfect pitch (theory is bc left side excels at analytic processing)

used with normal subjects, diff auditory stimuli are presented simultaneously to each ear, and subject are asked to report what they hear. if report more accurately with left ear, interpreted as indicating right-hemisphere superiority in processing stimuli, vice veda. shows that left-hemisphere advantage for language related sounds, right-hemisphere advantage is less clear-cut

x-ray examination of the brain by means of dyes injected into carotid artery

removal of cortical covering of entire hemisphere, used when cancerous tumor has spread throughout a hemisphere of brain

ability to envision in one's "mind" some scene, sound, or smell. visual cortex is activated as if subjects are actually looking at the object they are envisioning. also same for somatosensory cortex.

all human beings feel strong need to avoid disharmony between their actions and their beliefs.

functional changes that ensue when an organism interacts with a single, repeating, inconsequential stiulus

(ex: organism may jump once or twice to a flash of light or loud sound, but, when there are no consequences, it learns to ignore the distraction)

 decrease in response that occurs when a sensory stimulus is repeated serially without change. survival value: stimulus that originally aroused animal is subsequently experienced several times w/o irritation or harm, animal learns to ignore it so it is rear to attend to other stimuli

restoration of an unhabituated response by an unexpected difference in sensory stimulus, either different intensity or different modality. survival value: animal generally experiences some noxious or irritating stimulus, learns to regard it as dangerous, and consequently attempts to avoid it

subject associates previously neutral stimulus with response normally generated by another previously learned cue. also called classical, or pavlovian conditioning

an animal learns, either by reward or punishment, to respond to a given stimulus with a specific act, often one that is unnatural for that animal

(ex: rat presses steel lever to get a food pellet)

learning that occurs when a stimulus that naturally produces a certain reaction is paired a number of times with a neutral stimulus. neutral stimulus comes to elicit same reaction as primary stimulus

natural, automatic stimulus (ex: the food)

the previously neutral stimulus (ex: the bell)

the salivation she food is presented

salivation on hearing the bell

1. cAMP

2. CREB

3. Calcium

critical site for producing the associative response, one of deep cerebellar nuclei.

source of climbing fiber projection to cerebellar Purkinje neurons, disrupt acquisition and retention of conditional reflex.

study of effects of drugs on behavior. leads drug treatments for both schizophrenia and affective psychoses

Affective psychosis

(mood disorder)

refers to psychiatric disease whose central symptom is abnormally extreme, long-lasting emotions

severe mood disturbance in which prolonged periods of inappropriate depression alternate either with periods of excessive, inappropriate euphoria and mania

patient suffers from recurrent episodes but exhibits normal moods in between

patient has episodes of inappropriate elation, lack of concern about important problems, overconfidence, and hyperactivity, alternating with episodes of depression

experimental procedure to evaluate regulatory effectiveness of the endocrine system in depressed patients

used to treat high blood pressure, but subjects frequently became depress and suicidal. does this bed it depletes brain's contents of neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine

enzyme, normally breaks down same three monoamine transmitters depleted by reserpine. bc MAO is so similar to reserpine, researches interpreted this as that the inhibition of MAO may produce mania by prolonging the actions of these neurotransmitters

stimulant drug, activates neurons to release catecholamines dopamine and norepinephrine. allowed Joseph Schildkraut and Seymour Kety to propose catecholamine hypothesis of depression: conceived of depression as being caused by a loss of transmission at catecholamine synapses in brain

1) Disorders of perception (ex: voices, smelling poison gas)

2) Disorders of thinking, esp. loose associations (ex:appearance of car may lead to thoughts of a face, which amy suggest faces of those the patient believes t one controlling his/her brain)

3) Disorders of emotion (ex: laughing or crying at inappropriate times, often with rapid shifts from one extreme response to the other)

columnar arrangement in cortex is distributed system

-info flwo flollows many diff pathways, whose dominance at any given time is dynamic

-can handle incoming info and internal (reentrant) info simultaneously

-can match perception against external world

-considers this mechanism of consciousness

facial recognition

(lesion to this art and superior temporal sulcus disrupts facial recognition)

schizophrenia is caused by increase of dopamine transmission

supporting facts:

1. blockage of dopamine can treat TypeI schizophrenia symptoms

2. abuse of amphetamines (similar to dopamine) cause schizphrenic behavior

3. over-medicated L-DOPA patients also experience schizophrenic symptoms

4. effective antipsychotic medications (neuropletics) induce a tope of Parkinsonism

5. postmortem investigations = slightly elevated amounts of dopamine in basal ganglia

but there is also data that do not support this hypothesis

1. pharmacotherapy-serotonin reuptake blockers

2. behavior therapy

3. psychotherapy: ineffective, but may help patients cope

4. electro-convulsive therapy: ineffective

5. psychosurgery: "last resort"

6. best to do is combine pharmacotherapy and behavioral therapy

therapy for OCD. two active componenets:

1. in vivo exposure: be exposed to the thing that makes you obsessive

2. response prevention: prevent subject from acting out compulsion

very effective, equals results of pharmacotherapy

the one between the basal ganglia and cortex

this changes how the basal ganglia and cortex affects rest of the brain. effective