the multidisciplinary study of the nervous system and its role in behavior

- this identifies the subject matter of the investigation rather then the scientists training

- neuroscience has multiple levels: behavioral versus cognitive; molecular, genetic, cellular, ganglionis, organ, organismal, behavioral, societal, cognitive; and very few people can integrate them all

deals with what the mind is and what it's relationship is to the brain

-

the idea that the body and mind and everything else is physical

**this is where most neuroscientists fall in their ideas about the mind brain problem

deoxyriboneucleic acid

- the double helix

- each rung of ladder has 2 of the 4 bases

- adenine, thymine, guanine, cytocine- A,T,C,G

specialized cells that convey sensory information into the brain; carry out the operations involved in thought feeling and action; and transmit commands out into the body to control muscles and organs

- there are 100-150 neurons in the brain

-90% of brain is glial cells, only 10% neurons

- one neuron is connected to 10,000 others

most prominant part of the neuron

- nucleus is largest organelle in the cell body and contains the cells chromozomes and energy

carries commands to the muscles and organs

- are multipolar

extensions that branch out from the cellbody to recieve information from other neurons

* dendritic spines increase surface area so that more neurons can connect to it

extends like a tail from the cell body and carries information to other locations

branches at the end of the axon that culminate in swellings

- can connect to muscles and organs to make them contract!

chemicals located in the terminals and are released to communicate with a muscle or an organ or the next neuron in a chain; stored in vessicles

- we have hundrends of them!

connect one neuron to another in the same part of the brain or spinal cord

- most brain cells are these

the difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of the cell

- selective permeability contributes to this

difference in charge between the inside and outside of the membrane of a neuron at rest

- 70mv

ions move through the membrane to the side where they are less concentrated

- is one of the two forces that work to balance the location of ions

ions are attracted to the side that is oppositely charged

- is one of two forces that work to balance the location of ions

consists of large protein molecules that move sodium ions through the cell membrane to the outside and potassium ions back inside after an action potential

- has a ratio of 3Na+ per 2K+ which helps keep the inside of the cell more negative then the outside

the neuron can be fired again but only by a stronger-than-threshold stimulus 

- this is due to the K+ channels remaining open for a few milliseconds following the absolute refractory period and the continued flow of K+ making the neuron slightly more negative than usual

- produced by glial cells (oligodendrocytes in CNS and schwann cells in PNS)

- a fatty tissue that wraps around the axon to insulate it from the surrounding fluid and from other neurons

membrane enclosed containers that hold neurotransmitters in the terminal

- when an action potential arrives at the terminal, it opens channels that allow calcium ions to enter, the calcium ions cause the vesicles clustered nearest nearest the membrane to fuse with it, the membrane opens there and the transmitter spills out onto the postsynaptic membrane and diffuses

-after an action potential spills neurotransmitters onto the postsynaptic neuron, they bind with the receptors that match their shape and cause channels to open 

 these receptors open the channels directly to produce the immediate reactions required for muscle activity and sensory processing

-

-after an action potential spills neurotransmitters onto the postsynaptic neuron, they bind with the receptors that match their shape and cause channels to open 

-these receptors open channels indirectly and slowly to produce longer lasting effects

**hypopolarization

(partial depolarization)

excitatory and facilitates the occurance of an action potential

- brings neuron closer to zero

- happens when Na+ channels open

**hyperpolarization

(increased polarization)

inhibitory and makes an action potential less likely to occur

- takes neuron farther from zero

**excitatory postsynaptic potential

(EPSP)

hypopolarization of the dendrites and cell body

- happens when Na+ channels open

**inhibitory postsynaptic potential

(IPSP)

hyperpolarization of the dendrites and cell body

- happens when Cl- moves into the cell or when K+ moves out of the cell

process by which a neurotransmitter is  repackaged in vesicles to be used again

- if a transmitter isnt repackaged it can be reabsorbed by glial cells

- it can also be broken down by and enzyme

increases or decreases the amount of neurotransmitter released into the postsynaptic neuron

- happens at a axoaxonic synapse

a neuron is capable of releasing only one neurotransmitter

- this is WRONG!!!

-monamines

-amino acids

-peptides

-gas

serotonin-mood, sleep, arousal, aggression, depression, OCD, alcoholism

dopamine-contributes to movement control; promotes reinforcing effects of abused drugs, food, and sex; involved in schizophrenia and Parkinson's

norepinephrine-hormone released during stress; functions as a neurotransmitter in brain to increase arousal and attentiveness to environment; involved in depression

epinephrine- stress hormone related to norepinephrine; plays minor role as neurotransmitter in the brain

-mood, sleep, arousal, aggression, depression, OCD, alcoholism

- is a monamine

- SSRI=selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

-contributes to movement control; promotes reinforcing effects of abused drugs, food, and sex; involved in schizophrenia and Parkinson's

- is a monamine

- can be excitatory or inhibatory

- too much between basal ganglia and frontal lobe region causes delusions= schizophrenia 

- too little causes parkinson's symptoms

-hormone released during stress; functions as a neurotransmitter in brain to increase arousal and attentiveness to environment; involved in depression

- is a monamine

- SNRI=selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor

- if there is too much dopamine in the brain than that person is likely to have too much of this transmitter as well

- stress hormone related to norepinephrine; plays minor role as neurotransmitter in the brain

- is a monamine

- are the building blocks of protein

glutamate-the principal excitatory transmitter in brain and spinal cord; vitally involved in learning and is implicated in schizophrenia

GABA- gaba-aminobutyric acid; prodominant inhibitory neurotransmitter; it's receptors respond to alcoholand the class of tranquilizers called benzodiazepines; deficiency in GABA or its receptors is one cause of epilepsy

glycine- inhibitory transmitter in the spinal cord and lower brain; the poison strychnine causes convulsions and death by affecting glycine activity

- is an amino acid

-the principal excitatory transmitter in brain and spinal cord; vitally involved in learning and is implicated in schizophrenia

MSG=mono soduim glutamate- makes food taste better bc of its action in the brain, but is bad for your organs

- is an amino acid

- gaba-aminobutyric acid; prodominant inhibitory neurotransmitter; it's receptors respond to alcoholand the class of tranquilizers called benzodiazepines; deficiency in GABA or its receptors is one cause of epilepsy

- is a amino acid

 - inhibitory transmitter in the spinal cord and lower brain; the poison strychnine causes convulsions and death by affecting glycine activity

- endorphines

- substance P

- neuropeptide Y

- amines together make a peptide chain

-neuromodulators that reduce pain and enhance reinforcement

- is peptide  

- are opiods; is morphine created by the brain; get them with strenuous physical physical activity or when the brian thinks you might be in pain

- is peptide

- transmitter in neurons sensative to pain

-initiates eating and produces metabolic shifts

- is a peptide

- is a gas

- one of 2 known gas transmitters along with carbon monoxide; can serve as a retrograde transmitter, influencing the presynaptic neurons release of neurotransmitter; viagra enhances male erections by increasing nitric oxide's ability to relax blood vessels and produce penile engourgement

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe

- each one is named for the part of the skull above it

area anterior to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral fissure

- controls some of the highest human capabilities

- control of movement

- contains 2 hemispheres, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglion, diencephalon

rostral=anterior=front

caudal=posterior=back

dorsal=on top

ventral=on bottom

lateral=outward

medial=inward

extends the length of the central sulcus and is the location of the primary motor cortex

- each hemisphere side controls the opposite side of the body and has a slight say in its own side of the body

- HOMUNCULUS=the parts of the body are mapped onto the part of the moror cortex that controls its movement

- more motor cortex is devoted to parts of the body with fine motor control

- this primary motor area has help from the secondary motor areas (just anterior to the primary area

- the basal ganglia contributes to motor behavior

controls speech production; contributes to the movements involved in speech and gramatical structure

- damage here results in slowed speech, writing, and reading

involved in planning and organization, impulse control, adjusting behavior in response to rewards and punishments, and some forms of decision making

- 29% of the entire cortex

- damage here results in malfunctions in areas that we consider to make us human (schizophrenia, depression)

- damaged here patients often act in ways normal people would know would get them in trouble; they lack social and moral knowledge, lack knowledge of consequences of behavior; unable to make decisions; ppl with damage here lose the ability to learn from reward and punishment and to control impulses

the use of surgical intervention to treat cognitive and emotional disorders

- lobotomies were common (Walter Freeman conducted 40,000) and left patients emotionally blunted, distractible, and childlike in behavior

located superior to the lateral fissure and between the central sulcus and the occipital lobe

- they bring information together

**primary somatosensory cortex

(parietal lobes)

located on the post central gyrus; processes the skin senses (touch, warm, cold, and pain) and the senses that inform us about body position and movement

- serves primarily the opp side of the body

- organized as a homunculus and has more dedicated to more sensitive areas of the body

- sensory areas of the brain are refered to as projection areas

carry out further processing beyond what the primary area does; often combining information from other senses

- are contained in each of the 4 lobes

- parietal association areas recieve input from body senses and vision, help person identify objects by touch, determine location of limbs, locate objects in space

-damage to the posterior parietal cortex

- a disorder in which the person ignores objects, people, and activity on the side opposite the damage

- more frequent when in the right parietal lobe

- ex: not shave or makeup on one side of their face; think that that side limb belongs to someone else

recieves sound information from the ears, lies on the superior gyrus of the temporal lobe mostly hidden from view in the lateral fissure

- is just posterior to the auditory cortex

-interprites language input arriving from the nearby auditory and visual areas; it also generates spoken language through brocas area and written language by way of the motor cortex

- when damaged, person has trouble understanding speach or writing, but can still speak meaningless words

- located in left hemisphere for most ppl

- made mostly of cell bodies of neurons

- cortex looks greyish in color bc not myelinated

- 1.5-4mm thick

- triple the surface area

- provide axons with easier access to cell bodies (rather then if it thickened instead of folding)

- axons come together at the central core of each gyrus where their myelination gives a white appearence

- white matter of each gyrus joins with the white matter of the next gyrus creating the large bands of axons that surve as communication routes in the brain, two of which connect the two hemispheres

- in the lower part of the lobe

- major role in the visual identification of objects

- damage here=difficulty identifying familiar objects by sight even though they can give detailed descriptions of the objects and can still identify them by touch; damage here could also result in damage to fusaform face area= cant identify faces of friends but can by voices and wont even orient toward a persons face, just the sounds they make

- located on the posterior tip of the lobes

- anterior to these areas are 4 secondary areas that detect individual components of a scene such as color, movement, and form which are then combined in association areas

- visual cortex contains a map of visual space because adjacent receptors in the back of the eye send neurons to adjacent cells in the visual cortex

- deep in brain just below lateral ventricles

- is at the top of the brainstem

- recieves information from all the sensory systems except olfactory (smell)

- relays the information to the correct cortical projection areas

- there are 2 thalami side by side in the brain

- smaller structure just inferior to the thalamus

- major role in controlling emotion and motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity

- takes these actions through its partial control of the autonomic system

- also influences the hormonal environment of the body by controlling the pituitary gland (and pituitary controls other glands in the body)

- has two paired parts like the thalamus

- has largest concentration of nuclei important to behavior in the entire brain

- posterior to thalamus

- in the center of the brain

- just one structure and is not paired

- secretes melotonin (hormone that induces sleep/sleep cycles)

- a couple inces below the surface and ends the longitudinal fissure

- is a white matter tract

-dense band of fibers that carry information between the hemispheres

- studies of epileptics that have had this severed lead to discovery that language is more specialized on left hemisphere and spacial tasks are more right hemisphere

- cerebrospinal fluid=NaCl

-hydrocephalous=overproduction of this and leads to mental retardation and larger ventricles that have to be drained

- develops in ventricles and central canal in spinal cord

- carries material from blood vessels to CNS and transports waste materials in other direction

- lateral ventricles extend foreward deeply into frontal lobes and in other direction into occipital lobes then curve around into temporal lobes

- third ventricle is located between the two thalami and two halves of hypothalamus which form the ventricles walls

- cerebral aqueduct connects the third to the fourth by passing through the midbrain

- contains structures that are secondary in vision, audition, and movement

projects to the basal ganglia to integrate movements

- its dopamine-releasing cells degenerate during parkinson's disease

- contains centers related to sleep and arousal which are part of the reticular formation

 - also contributes to attention and aspects of motor activity including reflexes and muscle tone

- motor neurons pass through here between the cortex and cerebellum and sensory neurons pass through here on their way to the thalamus

- runs through the midbrain and the hindbrain

- is a collection of nuclei

- contributes to sleep and arousal, attention, aspects of motor activity, reflexes and muscle tone

-forms the lower part of the hindbrain

-its nuclei are involved with control of essential life processes such as cardiovascular activity and respiration

- perched on back of brain stem

- wrincled and divided down the center like the cerebral hemispheres

- name means "little brian"

- refines movements initiated by motor cortex by controlling their speed, intensity, and direction

- damage here results in a person having trouble making precise reaching movements, difficulty walking bc the automatic walking pattern was lost

- role in motor learning, emotion, and cognitive processes

- contains 70% of brains neurons

- protective 3 layer membrane

-dura mater=hard mother= outer layer

-pia mater=soft mother=middle layer

-arachnoid layer=spider web=inner layer

- most critical factor in neuron's ability to communicate

- holds the cell together and controls the environment in and around the cell

- small molecules like water, CO2, and oxygen can pass through the membrane freely 

K+

Na+

A-

Cl-

the fluid outside the cell is higher in Na+ and Cl- ions

the fluid inside the cell is higher in K+ and A- ions

- a partial depolarization that dies out over distance

-

-created by astrocytes and the plates are EXTRA tight

- provedes protection from toxins in the blood and neurotransmitters floating in the blood

- easy passage is limited to small molecules such as oxygen, Co2, and fat soluble substances

- brain structures surrounding ventricles are not protected by this barrier...area postrema which induces vomiting

**sympathetic nervous system

vs

parasympathetic nervous system

activates fight or flight mode

vs

activates rest and digest mode

**excitatory neurotransmitter

vs

inhibatory neurotransmitter

brings the neuron closer to firing

vs

takes the neuron further from firing by blocking the excitatory neurotransmitters

1.) method for breakdown

2.) synthesized by the cell

3.) has to have a particular repeptor on the cell

4.) if made outside the body it will react the same when put into the body

one long axon

- most skin recepters are these

-look like stars

- number of these is directly correlated with intelligence

motor neurons that control skeletal muscles (voluntary movements) and sensory neurons

- peripheral nervous system

- broken down into somatic and autonomic nervous systems

- made up of cranial nerves and and spinal nerves

- involuntary system

- contols knee reflex and others

- 2 parts: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

-neurogenesis occurs in the ventricular zone that surrounds the hallow tube which will later be the ventricles

- 250,000 new cells every minute

these new cells more from the ventricular zone outward to their new home

- they move with the help of radial glial to the top and create layers