Fill in the blank: somatic cells of sexually reproducing organisms are (blank)

Diploid (they contain 2 copies of each chromosome)

Fill in the blank: gamete cells (reproductive cells) are (blank)

Haploid (they only have one copy of each chromosome)

When 2 haploid gamete cells combine, what do they form?

They form a zygote (which is now diploid)

Communication from the glands of the body to the CNS is restricted by what?

The *highly hydrophobic* blood-brain barrier

What challenge is presented by the high hydrophobicity of the blood-brain barrier?

Communication across the membrane must be mediated by hydrophobic compounds

Communication from the CNS to the glands and organs of the body is not restricted by what?

The blood brain barrier

Because CNS-to-glands/organs communication is not restricted by the blood-brain barrier, what does this allow?

This allows for communication using hydrophilic compounds such as peptide hormones (the amino acid chains are hydrophilic)

Where do all peptides come from?

They come from larger proteins through the process of proteolysis. The adrenocorticotropic hormone, which mediates the body's stress response, is an example

What function does proteolysis give to the body?

It provides multiple responses to stimuli (such as stress)

What paradoxical reality may exist with some pain peptides such as ACTH?

Its parent protein may contain peptides that encode for analgesia from pain such as endorphins and enkephalins. Examples include beta-endorphin and Met-enkephalin

Fill in the blank: the portal through which the brain and body interact is the (blank)

Pituitary gland

Where does the synthesis of peptide hormones which are released into the blood supply through the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland occur?

In the neurons of the hypothalamus

Where do the peptide hormones made by the neurons of the hypothalamus release into the blood stream?

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland

What does the anti-diuretic hormone vasopressin do for the body?

It helps in water retention

What does the peptide hormone oxytocin do for the body?

It's responsible for uterine contractions during labor and milk letdown from breast ducts

Does the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland synthesize and release peptide hormones?

Yes

What controls the synthesis and release of peptide hormones from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

The hypothalamus

Is there a larger diversity of peptide hormone-producing cells in the anterior or posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

The anterior lobe. Some examples include corticotrophs, gonadotrophs, growth hormone producing cells and thyroid hormone producing cells

What do corticotrophs do in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

They synthesize pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and thus secrete andrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the blood supply

What stimulates the release of corticotrophs from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

Corticotropin releasing hormone cells in the hypothalamus

Follicle stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone are synthesized and secreted from what cells?

Gonadotrophs

Release of follice stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone from the gonadotrophs is stimulated by what?

Gonadotrophin releasing hormone cells in the hypothalamus

What is the Hypothalamus-pituitary adrenal axis (HPA axis)?

It's a feedback loop incorporating corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), ACTH and adrenal cortical steroid (cortisol)

What does the steroid hormone cortisol do?

It acts as a negative feedback response and inhibits CRH and ACTH release

Choose the correct response: steroid hormones are (hydrophilic/hydrophobic) and thus pass (directly/indirectly) through the membrane of cells

Hydrophobic, directly

What is the cause of physical differences between genders (i.e. what organizes the systems differently)?

Steroid hormones

What permits the expression of sexual physiology (production of gametes) as their effect on reproductive structures during development?

Steroid hormones

What is the building block for all steroid hormones?

Cholesterol

What are progesterone and estradiol?

They are the steroid hormones responsible for female reproduction

What is testosterone?

It serves an organizational and activational role in male reproduction

What is cortisol?

It serves as the primary stress hormone in both genders

Where would abundance of progesterone, testosterone, estradiol and their respective intermediaries be found: in men, women, or both?

Both genders

Is it the presence or quantities of steroid hormones that determines gender?

The quantities

How is steroid responsiveness determined?

By the presence/concentration of the specific receptor

Where would steroid hormone receptors be found for estrogen?

In the breasts, vagina, uterus and associated brain regions

Where would steroid hormone receptors be found for testosterone?

In the male genitalia, hair follicles, muscle groups and associated brain regions

Does initial mammalian development follow a male for female program?

Female

What is the Y chromosome's function in gender determination?

It contains the gene for a trophic factor, testes determination factor (TDF) which is very sensitive to testosterone levels. This signals the formation of testis instead of ovaries

What gender would an indivual be if they had a Y chromosome (containing testes determination factor or TDF) but there was no testosterone during development?

The default female settings would prevail and would be expressed

What effect (if any) does the castration of males have on gender?

It has feminizing effects. This is more easily observed if performed early in life during the "critical period"

What happens with testicular feminizing syndrome (TFM)?

A person has the XY genotype but is unresponse to androgen because of a mutation to its receptor. These individuals develop as the default female phenotype both physically and behaviorally

What is an interesting point regardining homosexuality within the animal kingdom?

There is no natural equivalent

Are there no, some, a good number, many or lots of examples of animal homosexual behaviors?

There are many. Not lots but still quite the number

Do homosexual tendencies in the animal kingdom tend to be exclusively homosexual or is it more bisexual in nature?

It tends to be more bisexual in nature

What is one hypothesis that has been proposed with regards to the hypothalamus in homosexual individuals?

It is hypothesized that they have smaller hypothalami

In mammals, most factors that determine whether sex behavior will lead to conception is what?

Under the control of females

What is characterized by receptive female sexual activity?

It states that some females are passive and accept male sexual advances

What does the selectivity theory of female sexual behavior state?

It states that females are discriminate and only accept sexual advances from dominant males

What does the proceptivity theory of female sexual behavior state?

It states that females are aggresive and actively seek out sexual contact. This is often displayed in the presence of negative/punishing influences

Shortly after a fertilized egg attaches to the uterine lining, the female body begins to produce a hormone called what?

Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) which is produced by the placenta

What is the luteal phase defect and how commonly does it occur?

It's the leading cause of miscarriage and is estimated at about 75% of fetilizations. It occurs when the luteal phase is shorter than normal, progesterone levels during the luteal phase are lower than normal or both.

What remedy is primarily used to prevent the luteal phase defect?

Progesterone injections or suppositories to artificially maintain high progesterone levels are used

What is meant by the fact that sexual activity is often confined to the peri-ovulatory period?

There is no sexual activity during the menstrual cycle

Estrus behavior is sexual behavior within certain times of the menstraul cycle. Are most animals or humans more likely to abide by this behavior?

Most animals

Menstrual behavior is sexual behavior that occurs throughout the menstrual cycle which requires constant male attendance and increase sexual contact frequency. Are most animals or humans more likely to abide by this practice?

Humans

Pick the right answer: peptides that regulate reproductive physiology (definitely, may or do not) influence sexual behavior

May

Does lutenizing-hormone releasing hormone produce sexual behavior in males or females?

Females

Do the peptide hormones oxytocin and vasopressin influence male or female sexual behavior?

They influence male sexual behavior and also impacts maternal behavior in females

Mating consists of discrete stages, also known as what?

Fixed action patterns

Ultimate fixed action potentials which are responsible for initiating casual events are involved in what parts of mating?

Attraction and arousal

What does the proximate fixed action patterns (which have a direct cause and effect) regulate in mating?

Copulation

In females, lordosis (the arching of the back during mating) is an example of what?

An ultimate fixed action pattern

In males, erection, intromission and ejaculation are examples of what?

Proximate fixed action patterns