surrounds external surface of muscle

(connective tissue)

surrounds a fascicle

(connective tissue)

surrounds each muscle fiber/cell

(connective tissue)

True or False:

Epimysium, perimysium, endomysium are continuous and form tendons

True or False:

All muscle types aid in movement.

True.

skeletal-walking/running

cardiac-movement of blood

smooth- movement of food in digestive system

True or False:

myofibrils are also called muscle cells.

False:

myofibrils are structures inside of muscle cells.

muscle fibers are also called muscle cells

True or False:

Myofibrils are made up of thick myofilaments and thin myofilaments

Is this a correct association:

Thin myofilaments-myosin

No.

Thin myofilaments are composed of actin, troponin, and tropormyosin

True or False:

Myosin has two tails and one head

False:

Myosin has two heads and one tail

Composed of only thin myofilaments

(Z lines bisect the I bands)

True or False:

A motor neuron only inervates one muscle cell (fiber)

False:

A motor neuron can innervate one to many muscle fibers/cells

True or False:

neuromuscular junction is an electrical synapse

False:

a neuromuscular junction is a chemical synapse

ACh is released from the motor neuron.

ACh binds to the ACh receptors on the motor end plate.

ACh receptors open allowing influx of Na

True or False:

ATP allows myosin heads to bind to actin

False:

ADP allows myosin heads to bind to actin but is quickly released once myosin binds

when thin myofilaments slide medially over thick

Caused when ADP is released from myosin head

prior to myosin attaching to actin:

ATP hydrolizes to ADP and P

breaks down ACh into Aectic acid and choline

allows for choline to be taken back by presynaptic terminal of motor neuron

True or False:

Ca is passively taken back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

False:

It is actively taken back via the Ca pump

Does not change during muscle contraction:

tension is reduced because there is not as much actin/myosin overlap.

There is a larger sliding distance.

tension is reduced because thin filaments begin to overlap.

The sliding distance is limited.

All or nothing response.

single contraction of a single muscle fiber in response to a single stimulus.

Increase in stimulus strength does not increase the magnitude of the twitch

True or False:

Lag phase but not the relaxation phase will begin to shorten and disappear with successive stimulation of a single muscle fiber.

False:

Both lag phase and relaxation phase begin to shorten and disappear

True or False:

Tension generated with successive stimulation of a single muscle cell increases.

True or False:

Increase in stimulus strength causes an increase in tension in a single muscle cell.

False:

Increase in stimulus frequency will cause an increase in tension-but not an increase in stimulus strength

Sustained contraction due to MAXIMAL frequency of stimuli

Lag phase and relaxation phase DISAPPEAR

Tension is at a peak

Contractile response of a whole muscle

1: Twitch

single motor neuron and the muscle fiber(s) it innervates

(potential for more than one muscle fiber)

True or False:

Fewer muscle fibers in an unit are responsible for slow acting, larger muscles.

False:

fewer muscle fibers in an unit allows for finer movements (ie muscles in the fingers)

True or False:

Greater muscle fibers in an unit are found in slow reacting muscles.

True or False:

Summation of a single muscle fiber is known as spatial summation.

False:

It's temporal summation

Isometric Contraction:

No movement of muscle.

muscle tension does not exceed resistance

tension is present

cross bridges are formed but there is no shortening or lengthening of sacromere

maintains posture/ keeps head errect

keeps muscles ready for work

True or False:

 there is increased muscle tone with upper motor neuron damage

True or False:

There is increased muscle tone with lower motor neuron damage.

False:

There is decreased muscle tone with lower motor neuron damage

Possible causes of muscle cramps:

(3)

1)Fatigue (low ATP)

2)Low extracellular Ca (causes greater excitation of sarcolemma)

3) Dehydration

True or False:

Low potassium generally causes muscle cramps.

False:

Low potassium can lead to muscle weakness-not normally cramps

Muscle rigidity that occurs several hours after death.

Cause by depletion of ATP

True or False:

Rigor Mortis can occur while you're alive.

False:

only happens after death-due to lack of ATP

True or False:

ATP is used as an immediate source of energy for muscle contraction

Sources of Energy for muscle contraction:

Creatine Phosphate

Glycogen

Fat

Protein

True or False:

ATP is the only form of energy that can be used in muscle contractions.

True:

Creatine phosphate, glycogen, fat, and protein can be used as sources for ATP, but can't be used directly to cause muscle contractions.

Processes that yield ATP:

(3)

Phosphagen System(direct phosphorlation of ADP into ATP)

Anaerobic (only glycolysis)

Aerobic(fatty acids, amino acids, and glycerol)

True or False:

Anaerobic requires oxygen to produce ATP

False

Aerobic require oxygen to produce ATP

Aerobic produces higher yield of ATP but takes longer

True or False:

The phosphagen system is what is used to produce ATP while running a marathon.

False:
The phosphagen system only provides about 10-15 seconds of ATP.

Aerobic production would be used to produce ATP during a marathon.

Signals the brain to feel tired.

might be linked to interlueukin 6

possible defense mechanism to conserve energy

Depletion of ATP

Accumulation of potassium outside the muscle fiber

Accumulation of intercellular phosphate(muscle fiber

Accumulaton of lactic acid

Dysfunction at the neuromuscular junction

can move muscle at least once but can't repeat the movements numerous times

Autoimmune causes of synaptic fatigue:

(2)

myasthenia gravis: autoimmune destruction of acetylcholine receptors-muscles can't be excited-muscle tone decreases

Lambert-Eaton myasthenia syndrome: Autoimmune destruction of pre-synaptic calcium channels

Muscle Fiber Types:

(3)

Red, slow twitch fibers

White, fast twitch fibers

Intermediate fibers

high respiratory capacity (slow oxidative)

High concentration of myoglobin

Red

More ATP produced aerobically

Suited for endurance

Marathon runners

High concentration of glycogen

Very low concentration of myoglobin

more ATP produced anaerobically

fast calcium pumps

contracts rapidly

suited for power movements

(100m dash)

Intermediate Fibers:

Fast twitch and fatigue resistant (fast oxidative-glycolytic)

Not quite as resistant to fatigue as Red, slow twitch

Do not contract as rapidly as fast/white twitch

Matching:

1.)Red, slow twitch                            A.) Type IIa

2)White, fast twitch                          B.) Type IIb

3.)Intermediate                              C.) Type I

                                                            D.) Type IIx

                                                           E.) Type III

Red, slow twitch fibers- (c) Type I

White, fast twitch fibers- (b+d) Type IIb and IIx

Intermediate fibers- (a+e) IIa and III

True or False:

Muscle cells grow by hyperplasia (cell division)

False:

Muscle cells grow via hyerptrophy

Myofibrils increase in number

Protein that prevents hyperplasia

Prevents cell division

Smooth muscle

(location)

smooth muscle

(voluntary or involuntary)

smooth muscle types:

(2)

Single unit-unitary-visceral

Multiunit

most common type

digestive tract, ureters, uterus

stimulation of one cell excites adjacent cells

less organized

function independently

arrector pili, iris, some blood vessels

True or False:

smooth muscle contains myofibrils

True:

myofibrils are more randomly organized and not striated

actin anchored to dense bodies in sarcoplasm

actin anchored to dense areas attached to sarcolemma

contain calcium binding protein calmodulin

True or False:

T tubules are found in smooth muscle cells

False:

T tubules are not needed because cells are smaller than skeletal muscle cells

Cardiac muscle:

(Voluntary or involuntary)

(Striated or nonstriated)

(Developed sarcoplasmic reticulum or undeveloped)

striated

well developed sarcoplasmic reticulum

involuntary

True or False:

Cardiac t tubules are more developed than skeletal muscle t tubules

True

Form diads with a single terminal cisternae

found in cardiac muscle cells

calcium released from terminal cisterna into the sarcoplasm causes release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Intercalated discs

found in cardiac muscle

cross bands that connect opposing ends of cardiac muscle fibers

form syncitium

sheet of cardiac muscle cells

allows all cardiac muscle cells to contract at the same time

True or False:

Blood is a connective tissue

liquid portion of blood

mostly (91% ) water

rest proteins

approx 9% of blood plasma

includes albumin, globulins,

and fibrinogen

most abundant plasma protein

 helps regulate water movement between tissues and blood

RBC's

majority of formed elements

no nucleus, bioconcave

contain oxygen carrying protein-hemoglobin

WBC's

less than 1% of total blood volume

have a nucleus

do not carry hemoglobin

do not carry oxygen

True or False:

WBC's carry oxygen

False:

RBC's carry oxygen via hemoglobin

agranulocytes

granulocytes

True or False:

agranulocytes do not have granules

false:

agranulocytes do have granules, but they are two small to be seen with a light microscope

True or False:

Granulocytes have granules

Granulocytes:

3 types-

neutrophils

basophils

eosinophils

neutrophils

platelets

(thromobcytes)

functions of blood:

(7)

transport of gases

transport of nutrients

transport of waste products

regulation of pH, electrolytes, and water balance

regulation of body temp

protection against pathogens

clot formation

formed elements of blood

(3)

True or False:

formed elements are created in the bone marrow as an adult

True or False:

erythrocytes have a nucleus

False:

RBC's do not have a nucleus

develope into RBC

does have nucleus at this stage

daughter cell of hemocytoblast that developes into granular WBC's

(basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils)

daughter cell of hemocytoblast that develops into agranular WBC

monocytes

daughter cell of hemocytoblast that develop into megakaryocytes

these fragment to form platelets

EPO

stimulates megakaryocyte development

(platelet formation)

treatment for kidney failure

chemo patients

blood doping for endurance sports

4 individual globin protein units:

Adults- 2α and 2β globins

Fetal- 2α and 2γ(gamma) globins

each globin contains a heme which contains iron and binds an oxygen molecule

4 oxygens bound to Hb=100% saturation(full)

3 oxygens bound to Hb= 75% saturation

2 oxygens bound to Hb = 50% saturation

1 oxygen bound to Hb - 25% saturation

device that measures the percent of Hb that is fully saturated

arterial blood is normally 95-99% saturated

True or False:

RBC's contain mitochondria

True or False:

a RBC does not have a nucleus to allow for greater number of Hb in the cell

True or False:

A RBC can divide and can produce new proteins

low blood oxygen levels.

Causes of low blood oxygen levels:

decreased /defective RBC's

decreased/defective Hb

lung disease

smoking

strenous exercise

high altitude

cardiovascular disease

decreased /defective RBC's

decreased/defective Hb

lung disease

smoking

strenous exercise

high altitude

cardiovascular disease

2.5 million

(same number as produced)

removed via spleen and liver

they're phagocytized via macrophages

True or False:

macrophages were once called monocytes when they were found in the blood.

True or False:

Hemoglobin is broken down into heme and globin when the RBC is phagocytized.

True or False:

Globin is broken down into amino acids when

a RBC is phagocytized.

apoferritin and iron complex

True or False:

Ferritin is only found in the liver.

False:

it is also found in the spleen and bone marrow

fat soluable product of biliverdin.

must attach to albumin to be transported to the liver

free bilirubin that joins to glucuronic acid in the liver and becomes water soluable and can be excreted via the kidneys and intestines.

Used to make bile

True or False:

Bile is released into the kidneys.

False:

conjugated bilirubin forms bile and is released into the small instestine, but some conjugated bilirubin is released back into the blood and is excreted through the kidneys

prehepatic jaundice

Causes and type

(bilirubin before reaches liver)

Caused by increased RBC destruction

liver can't conjugate all free bilirubin

(high levels of free bilirubin)

normal amount of conjugated bilirubin

normal stool and urine color

found in newborns due to high (70%)hematocrits

(jaundice caused by liver)

Liver's unable to conjugate free bilirubin in blood

High free bilirubin in the blood/low conjugated

Pale feces/normal urine

found with liver disorders-cirrhosis and hepatitis

blockage of bile drainage(gall stones)

conjugated bilirubin can't enter small instestine

increased conjugated bilirubin in blood

pale feces/dark urine

bilirubin toxicity in the brain of infants

bilirubin moves from blood to brain

jaundice below the waist

high pitched cry

lethargy

loss of muscle tone

-can lead to brain damage or death

Hemoglobin concentration

(not the same as hematocrit)

1) males

2.) females

1.) 13.5-18mg/dl blood

2.) 11.5-16mg/dl blood

fatigue

shortness of breath(dypsnia)

malaise

pale skin(pallor)

genetic disorders

blood loss

lack of EPO (kidney disease)

malnutrition

cancer

autoimmune

iron deficiency

inability to absorb b12

folate deficiency

nutritional cause

low iron

most common cause of anemia

Treated with iron supplements

-lack of intrinsic factor in stomach

can't absorb B12 from foods

- nutritional deficiency

Increase B12 via shots or nutrition

nutritional anemia

folate needed to mature RBC's

increase folate

Caused by damage to Red bone marrow

possibly autoimmune or therapeutic drugs

Diagnosed by bone marrow biopsy

treatment: bone marrow transplant or immunosuppressive drugs

Genetic disorder

Anemia: due to defective Hb

Type α or β

Alpha-affects alpha globin chain/Beta affects beta globin chain

Treatment: blood transfusions which can cause iron overloading which is treated by chelation therapy

Defective beta chain on Hb

RBC's sickle due to polymerization of defective Hb

RBC's clump and block blood flow-cause vaso-occlusive crisis

Sickle cell crisis

RBC's block blood flow

cause ischemia

and pain

hypoxia

acidosis

dehydration

infection

analgesics for pain

blood transfusion

bone marrow transplant

hydroxurea: breaks down cells prone to sickling (a chemotherapeutic agent-long term use can cause leukemia)

Increased RBC destruction

Lifespan of RBC just a few weeks

Can cause jaundice

Pernicious

folate deficiency

thalassemia

sickle cell anemia

Ertythroblastosis fetalis

Increased percentage of RBC's

Caused by increased EPO

Increases viscosity of blood (thickness)

Increases blood pressure

high altitude exposure

lung disease

smoking

shots of EPO

Blood doping (endurance athletes)

Elevated WBC count

can be caused by infection (>10,000)

Abnormally low WBC count

(<5,000)

Can be caused by AIDS

overproduction of any one type of WBC

Crowds out RBC's and platelets

WBC's are defective non functioning

Frequent infections

More common in adults, but #1 type of children's cancer

Not cells, but cell fragments

 normal range  150,000-400,000/µl of blood

Decreased platelet counts

<50,000- can lead to uncontrolled bleeding

Causes of

Thrombocytopenia:

Leukemia

autoimmune (lupus)

aplastic anemias(bone marrow doesn't function properly)

congenital

idiopathic

symptoms of

Thrombocyopenia

usually asymptomatic unless platelet counts are extremely low

purpura-red or purple discolorations of skin

Petechiae-small spots

Ecchymoses- larger spots

bleeding of mouth, gums, digestive tract and brain

treatment of

Thrombocyopenia

platelet transfusions

TPO injections

Increased platelet counts

asymptomatic

Causes of

Thrombocytosis

primary: idiopathic

-can cause bleeding if platelets are abnormal or clotting if platelets are normal

Secondary Thromobocytosis:

- can cause inflammation and bleeding

none needed for secondary

daily low aspirin

Body's mechanisms of hemostasis

(3)

Vascular spasms/Vasospasm

Platelet plug

Blood coagulation

Vasospasm

vasoconstriction due to cut blood vessel

decreases blood flow to vessel

restricts bleeding

more effective in veins than arteries

works in conjunction with vasospasm

endothelial cells of blood vessels secrete vWF

Platelets bind and become activated

Platelets aggregate and form platelet plug

occurs on a daily basis

Von Willebrand factor

(vWF)

protein that aids in the adhesion of platelets to the blood vessel.

Platelets adhere to collagen fibers of damaged blood vessel via vWF

after platelets bind to damaged vessel, platelets activate and release ADP, thromboxane,serotonin, and calcium

Causes them to become sticky

Positive feedback cycle

allows platelet plug to form

so named because it begins with substances that are outside of the plasma.

Rapid response- less than 30 sec

release tissue thromboplastin (factor III)

So named because begins with substances that are part of the plasma

relatively slow-takes minutes

more complex than extrinsic

initiated by activation of Hageman factor (XIIa)

Cause by blood being exposed to foreign surface

Pathway that involves both extrinsic and intrinsic clotting mechanisms:

(combine)

Prothombinase converts prothrombin (factorII) into thrombin(factor IIa)

Thrombin catalyzes a reaction that fragments fibrinogen

Long threads of fibrin forms webbing of clot

True or False:

Calcium and vitamin K are both needed for the synthesis of prothrombin

Thrombin

Part of common pathway

catalyzes a reaction that fragments fibrinogen(factor I)

Long threads of Fibrin are formed that forms the webbing of the clot

forms the webbing of a blood clot

Part of common pathway

actin and myosin platelets pull edges of broken blood vessel together

platelets release platelet derived growth factor

Clot dissolution

Fibrinolysis

Occurs a few days after clot formation

plasminogen activators (enzymes) released by damaged tissue converts plasminogen into plasmin

Hemophilia's ABC

Von Willebrand disease

Vitamin K deficiency

Liver Disease

Hemophilia A

Hemophilia B

Hemophilia C

due to deficiency of factor VIII

Bleeding into joints, muscles, GI tract and brain

Most common in males

Most common form of Hemophilia

Plasma transfusion

Factor VIII injection

Due to deficiency of factor IX

bleeding into joints and muscles

most exclusive in males

very mild forms in females

Plasma transfusion

Factor IX injection

Due to deficiency of factor XI

nosebleeds heavy menses

occurs in both males and females

no treatment is needed

Due to deficiency  of vWF and factor VIII

most common hereditary bleeding disorder in world

nosebleeds, heavy menses, bruising

can be caused by autoimmune disorder

Treatment of

Von Willebrand disease

Plasma transfusion

Factor VIII and vWF injections

Can lead to excessive bleeding

Vitamin K is needed to synthesize factors II, VII, IX, and X

Excessive antibiotic use b/c ecoli makes Vit K

Malabsorption (Crohn's)

Newborns (lack intestinal flora)

Treatment of

Vitamin K deficiency

Stasis

Disseminated intravascular coagulation

Risk factors for

 Abnormal Clot formation

Pregnancy

being overweight

smoking

supplemental estrogen therapy (birthcontrol)

slowed or halted blood flow due to:

inactivity

congestive heart failure

aneurysms

Massive clotting of blood in body leads to massive bleeding

Causes of

Disseminated intravascular coagulation

1)Obstetrical complications (most common cause):

-toxemia

-chemicals for uterus

2)Sepsis

3)Tissue Trauma

Treatment of

Disseminated intravascular coagulation

transfuse platelets

transfuse plasma

anitcoagulants (if caught early)

Antithrombin (protein that inactivates number of clotting factors)

Heparin-activates antithrombin-produced by basophils and endothelial cells

Prostacyclin-inhibits  platelets from releasing coagulation factors-prevents aggregation of platelets

Heparin

Coumadin/Warfarin

Plavix

Aspirin

Blood thinner

competes with vit K

prevents synthesis of vit K dependent clotting factors

stops platelets from sticking together

blocks ADP receptors

Platelets can't be activated and can not aggregate

(81mg/day)

inhibits cyclooxygenase

inhibits thromboxane A2 secreted by platelets

prevents platelet aggregation

Lasts for days

Clot busting drugs

Streptokinase and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)

activates plasminogen to produce plasmin

Plasmin digests fibrin

Hirudin-leeches

Clot busting drugs:

activates plasminogen to produce plasmin

Plasmin digests fibrin

clot busting drug

protein from saliva of leeches

Hirudotherapy-use of leeches for medicinal purposes-help with healing

Type A blood

(RBC/Plasma)

RBC contains antigen A

Plasma contains antibodies to antigen B

AA or AO

RBC contains B antigen

Plasma contains A antibody

Genotype:

BB or Bo

RBC contains A and B antigen

Plasma contains-NO antibodies

Genotype: AB

RBC contains no antigens

Plasma contains antibodies to A and B

Genotype: oo

five Rh antigens, but D is most important

Rh Postive has D antigen(DD) or (Dd)

Rh negative no D antigen (dd)

Genotype: dd

Plasma has no D antibodies present

RBC does not have D antigen present

15% of population

Genotype: DD or Dd

85% of population

Plasma  has no antibodies to antigen D

RBC does have D antigen present

Blood Type Distribution:

Most Common to Least

Type O Blood

No antigens

Type AB plasma

No antibodies

Type O-

No antigens present of surface of RBC

Type AB+

has no antibodies in plasma because

Has A, B, and D antigens on surface