Term
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Definition
-actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects
-focusing attention on the intended outcomes of an action, rather than on the movement required by the skill |
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Term
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Definition
specific to context of instruction about how to perform a skill
-the observer perceives and uses invariant features of the coordination movement pattern to develop his or her own movement pattern to perform the skill |
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Term
| verbal cues - environmental context |
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Definition
-cue direct attention to a specific environmental event or to specific sources of regulatory information
-ex. "ready," "ball," "hit" |
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Term
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Definition
a unique set of characteristics that defines a generalized motor program and does not vary from one performance of an action to another
-research indicates that the visual system automatically detects in a movement pattern invariant information for determining how to produce the observed action |
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Term
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Definition
a unique set of characteristics that defines a generalized motor program and does not vary from one performance of an action to another
-research indicates that the visual system automatically detects in a movement pattern invariant information for determining how to produce the observed action
invariant features
-a specific class of visuomotor neurons in the brain
-neurons that fires both when the person acts and observes the same action performed by another, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other
-use of fMRI and EEG show that different parts of the brain are activated during observation of skills and together these brain activity recordings indicate the existence of a mirror neuron system |
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Term
| influence of skill characteristics |
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Definition
-the influence of demonstration on skill acquisition depends on characteristics of the skill being learned
-the most important characteristic is that the skill being learned requires acquisition of a new pattern of coordination |
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Term
| discovery learning situation |
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Definition
-the instructions focus the learners' attention on the action goal of the skill
-they "discover" how to move to achieve the action goal |
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Term
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Definition
-the instructions focus the learners' attention on the action goal of the skill
-they "discover" how to move to achieve the action goal
discovery learning situation
-directs' the learner's attention to move according to the image, which is the intended movement outcome of the skill |
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Term
| timing and frequency of demonstration |
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Definition
-for beginners, demonstration provides effective means of communicating the general moment pattern of the action or skill
-beneficial to demonstrate a skill before the person begins practicing it
-the instructor should continue demonstrating during the practice as frequently as possible |
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Term
| verbal instruction to focus attention |
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Definition
-people can learn to select relevant cues from the environment without being consciously aware of what those cues are
-when people are told what to look for ahead of time they direct so much of their attentional resources to trying to remember the rule and looking for its occurrence that their performance is disrupted
-people do better when they discover the pattern on their own and are not told before hand |
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Term
| verbal cues - prompt action |
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Definition
-cue prompts action for either a specific movement or sequence of movements
-ex. "head down," "turn"
-effectiveness is seen when an association develops between the cue and the act it prompts |
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Term
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Definition
| the use of demonstration as means of conveying information about how to perform a skill |
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Term
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Definition
-slalom ski simulator
-showed that participants who had observed the skilled demonstration developed coordinated movement patterns earlier in practice than did those who had not observed a demonstration
-influence of demonstration on skill acquisition depends on characteristics of the skill being learned |
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Term
| Bandura's Four Subprocesses of Observational Learning |
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Definition
-attentional process: what the person observes and the information he or she extracts from the model's actions
-retention process: the person transforms and restructures what he or she observes into symbolic codes that the person stores in memory
-behavior reproduction: the person translates the memory representation of the modeled action and turns it into physical action
-motivation process: the incentive or motivation to perform the modeled action |
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Term
| Speed-Accuracy Skill Instruction |
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Definition
-verbal instructions direct a person's attention to certain performance goals of the skill
-when speed and accuracy are equally important, interactions that initially emphasize accuracy led to the best achievement
-initial practice should emphasize accuracy, later emphasis on speed |
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Term
| Gentile's demonstration view (timing/frequency) |
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Definition
-verbal instructions direct a person's attention to certain performance goals of the skill
-when speed and accuracy are equally important, interactions that initially emphasize accuracy led to the best achievement
-initial practice should emphasize accuracy, later emphasis on speed
Speed-Accuracy Skill Instruction
-it is beneficial to demonstrate a skill before the person begins practicing it
-the instructor should continue demonstrating during practice as frequently as necessary |
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Term
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Definition
-it is beneficial to demonstrate a skill before the person begins practicing it
-the instructor should continue demonstrating during practice as frequently as necessary
Gentile's demonstration view (timing/frequency)
-short, concise phrases that direct performer's attention to important environmental regulatory characteristics, or that prompt the person to perform key movement pattern components of the skills
-"look at the ball," "bend your knee"
-effective for learning and performing |
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Term
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Definition
learning a skill by observing a person performing the skill; also known as modeling
-people can recognize different gait patterns accurately and quickly without seeing the entire body
-people use invariant relative time relationship between components of gait as critical information |
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Term
| cognitive mediation theory |
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Definition
learning a skill by observing a person performing the skill; also known as modeling
-people can recognize different gait patterns accurately and quickly without seeing the entire body
-people use invariant relative time relationship between components of gait as critical information
observational learning
Bandura, a theory for explaining the benefit of a demonstration proposing that when a person observes a skilled model, the person translates the observed movement information into a cognitive code that the person stores in memory and uses when the observer performs the skill
-cognitive processing serves as a mediator between the perception of the movement information and the performance of the skill |
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Term
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Definition
Bandura, a theory for explaining the benefit of a demonstration proposing that when a person observes a skilled model, the person translates the observed movement information into a cognitive code that the person stores in memory and uses when the observer performs the skill
-cognitive processing serves as a mediator between the perception of the movement information and the performance of the skill
cognitive mediation theory
Gibson, a theoretical view explaining the benefit of observing a skilled model demonstrate a skill; it proposes that the visual system is capable of automatically processing the observed movement in a way that constrains the motor control system to act accordingly, so that the person does not need to engage in cognitive mediation
-the visual information directly provides the basis for coordination and control of the various body parts required to produce the action |
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Term
| Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) |
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Definition
Gibson, a theoretical view explaining the benefit of observing a skilled model demonstrate a skill; it proposes that the visual system is capable of automatically processing the observed movement in a way that constrains the motor control system to act accordingly, so that the person does not need to engage in cognitive mediation
-the visual information directly provides the basis for coordination and control of the various body parts required to produce the action
dynamic view of modeling
-this area of the brain is activated when participants were asked to observe with the intent to imagine themselves imitating the movements
-pre-SMA was activated when they were asked to judge the accuracy and consistency of the movements |
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Term
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Definition
-this area of the brain is activated when participants were asked to observe with the intent to imagine themselves imitating the movements
-pre-SMA was activated when they were asked to judge the accuracy and consistency of the movements
Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)
a research procedure used to determine the relative information people use to perceive and identify coordinated human actions; involves placing LEDs or light reflecting material on certain joints of a person, then filming or videotaping the person performing the action; when an observer views the film or video, he or she sees only the points of light of the LED markers, which identify the joints in action
-people identity the ratio of time duration between the forward and return swings of the lower leg (perception of motion) |
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Term
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Definition
-what we "see" is what we perceive from what we look at
-what we perceive may be at a conscious or non conscious level of awareness |
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Term
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Definition
| -stimulation of sense organs |
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Term
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Definition
-stimulation of sense organs
sensation
-beginners can derive learning benefits even from observing unskilled demonstrators, especially if both the observers and the models are beginners
-encourages active problem solving |
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Term
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Definition
| -important to direct learners' attention to focus on the features of the skill or environmental context that will enhance their performance of the skill |
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Term
| verbal cues and demonstration |
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Definition
-important to direct learners' attention to focus on the features of the skill or environmental context that will enhance their performance of the skill
verbal instructions
-give verbal cues alone with demonstration to supplement visual information
-ex. learning a soccer pass
-visual arrows and the verbal cues focused the participants' attention to the parts of the skill that were critical to a successful performance |
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Term
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Definition
-form of demonstration that works best for skills which the goal is to move in a certain criterion movement time or rhythm
-learning dance steps in a rhythmic pattern |
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Term
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Definition
| in the context of provided augmented feedback, a range of acceptable performance error; augmented feedback is given only when the amount of error is greater than this range |
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Term
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Definition
in the context of provided augmented feedback, a range of acceptable performance error; augmented feedback is given only when the amount of error is greater than this range
performance bandwidths
a generic term used to describe information about performing a skill that is added to sensory feedback and comes from a source external to the person performing the skill; extrinsic or external feedback
-knowledge of results, and knowledge of performance
-ex. golf coach telling the golfer where the ball landed |
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Term
| augmented feedback can hinder skill learning |
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Definition
a generic term used to describe information about performing a skill that is added to sensory feedback and comes from a source external to the person performing the skill; extrinsic or external feedback
-knowledge of results, and knowledge of performance
-ex. golf coach telling the golfer where the ball landed
augmented feedback
1. erroneous augmented feedback
2. augmented feedback while a person performs
3. feedback given too frequently during practice |
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Term
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Definition
biomechanical type of information used as a type of augmented feedback for people improving static and dynamic balancing skills
ex. -laser pointer provided feedback and improved stability/balance |
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Term
| knowledge of performance (KP) |
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Definition
Play
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biomechanical type of information used as a type of augmented feedback for people improving static and dynamic balancing skills
ex. -laser pointer provided feedback and improved stability/balance
center of pressure
category of augmented feedback that gives information about movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome
ex. -archery teacher telling student that she pulled the bow to the left before releasing, video replay |
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Term
| qualitative augmented feedback |
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Definition
| augmented feedback that is descriptive in nature and indicates quality of performance |
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Term
| summary augmented feedback |
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Definition
give a listing of performance-related information after a certain number of practice trials
ex. -summary of 10 leg extension attempts |
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Term
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Definition
| the interval of time between the presentation of augmented feedback and the beginning of the next trial |
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Term
| when augmented feedback is essential |
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Definition
the interval of time between the presentation of augmented feedback and the beginning of the next trial
post-KR interval
1. some skill performance contacts do not make critical sensory feedback available to a person (no visual feedback)
2. because of disease, injury, etc., a person does not have the available sensory pathways needed to detect critical task-intrinsic feedback
3. a person cannot use the task-intrinsic feedback they receive (cannot determine the speed of a ball on our own) |
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Term
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Definition
| concurrent augmented feedback, although performance improves during practice when feedback is available, it declines on retention or transfer trials when augmented feedback is removed |
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Term
| concurrent augmented feedback |
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Definition
| augmented feedback that is provided while a person is performing a skill or making a movement |
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Term
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Definition
augmented feedback that is provided while a person is performing a skill or making a movement
concurrent augmented feedback
1. to confirm their own assessment of task-inrinsic feedback even though is may be redundant
2. learners need KR when they cannot determine the outcome of the performance based on the available task-intrinsic information
3. motivation to continue practicing the skill
4. problem solving, trial and error of how to achieve the goal |
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Term
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Definition
| for concurrent augmented feedback to be effective, it must facilitate the learning of the critical characteristics or relationships in the task as specified by task-intrinsic feedback |
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Term
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Definition
a verbal knowledge of performance statement that describes only the error a person has made during the performance of the skill
-better for advanced learners |
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Term
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Definition
a verbal knowledge of performance statement that describes only the error a person has made during the performance of the skill
-better for advanced learners
descriptive KP
1. when skills must be performed according to specified movement characteristics like gymnastics
2. specific movement components of skills that require complex coordination must be improved or corrected
3. the goal of the action is kinematic, kinetic, or specific muscle activity
4. KR is redundant with task-intrinsic feedback |
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Term
| terminal augmented feedback |
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Definition
| augmented feedback that is provided after a person has completed the performance of a skill or movement |
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Term
| roles of augmented feedback |
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Definition
-to facilitate achievement of the action goal of the skill
-motivate the learner to continue striving toward the goal |
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Term
| performance-based bandwidths |
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Definition
| presenting augmented feedback only when a person's performance error is larger than a predetermined amount, this individualizes the systematic reduction of the frequency of augmented feedback |
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Term
| knowledge of results (KR) |
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Definition
presenting augmented feedback only when a person's performance error is larger than a predetermined amount, this individualizes the systematic reduction of the frequency of augmented feedback
performance-based bandwidths
category of augmented feedback that gives information about the outcome of performing a skill or about achieving a goal of the performance
-ex. PT showing patient a graph that the degrees of leg extension was 3 more than last time |
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Term
| subjective performance evaluation |
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Definition
category of augmented feedback that gives information about the outcome of performing a skill or about achieving a goal of the performance
-ex. PT showing patient a graph that the degrees of leg extension was 3 more than last time
knowledge of results (KR)
-activity during KR-delay that actually can benefit learning
-requires the person to evaluate his or her own performance
-estimation of the outcome of the performance or the estimation of movement-related characteristics
-estimation of specific characteristics of some of the movement related components of the action |
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Term
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Definition
a type of augmented feedback that provides information about physiological processes through the use of instrumentation
-effective when it provides information people can use to alter movements and when they do not become dependent on its availability
ex.- EMG - muscle activity, heartbeat for rifle shooters |
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Term
| detectable external referent |
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Definition
| a motor skill that does not require augmented feedback to learn |
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Term
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Definition
a verbal knowledge of performance statement that describes errors made during the performance of a skill and states what needs to be done to correct them
-better for beginners |
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Term
| erroneous augmented feedback |
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Definition
-providing people with erroneous information hinders learning
-this is important because people in early stage of learning will use augmented feedback when it is available whether it is correct or not |
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Term
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Definition
| the interval of time between the completion of the movement and the presentation of augmented feedback |
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Term
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Definition
the interval of time between the completion of the movement and the presentation of augmented feedback
KR-delay interval
-give feedback during the performance?
-give feedback after the performance?
-how often do you give feedback? |
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Term
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Definition
the sensory feedback that is naturally available while performing a skill
-visual, auditory, and propioceptive, tactile
-ex. seeing where the dart you threw landed (visual) |
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Term
| quantitative augmented feedback |
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Definition
| augmented feedback that includes a numerical value related to the magnitude of a performance characteristic (speed of a baseball pitch) |
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Term
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Definition
-little empirical research exists that establishes the evocativeness of video replays as an aid for skill acquisition
-however, research establishes that video replays transmit certain types of performance related information more effectively then other type
-video replay felicitates the learning of those performance features that performers can readily observe and determine how to correct, but if the features are difficult to visually discern it is no more effective then verbal KP |
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Term
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Definition
| systematically reducing the KR frequency, not giving feedback after every trial but instead reducing feedback leads to better retention. However, an optimal relative frequency appears to be specific to the skill being learned |
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Term
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Definition
| receiving augmented feedback only when the individual asks for it |
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Term
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Definition
receiving augmented feedback only when the individual asks for it
self-selected feedback
a hypothesis indicating that the role of augmented feedback is learning to guide performance to be correct during practice; however, if it is provided too frequently it can cause the learner to develop a dependency on its availability and therefore to perform poorly when it is not available |
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Term
| contextual interference effect |
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Definition
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-occurs when a high amount of contextual interference results in better learning
-better retention and transfer performance |
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Term
| action plan reconstruction hypothesis |
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Definition
-following a blocked practice schedule, the person can use the same action plan he or she used on the previous trial, or slightly modified
-in random practice the learner must reconstruct and modify that plan to attempt the skill on the next trial
-high contextual interference requires learners to engage in problem-solving activity during practice and leader to better retention and transfer test performance |
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Term
| sensory/perceptual characteristics |
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Definition
-motor skill learning is specific to the sources of sensory/perceptual information available during practice
-the role of visual and propioceptive information available during the performance of a skill |
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Term
| limits to contextual interference |
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Definition
-motor skill learning is specific to the sources of sensory/perceptual information available during practice
-the role of visual and propioceptive information available during the performance of a skill
sensory/perceptual characteristics
certain factors limit the generalization of the contextual interference effect
-not applicable to the learning of all motor skill characteristics
-learner characteristics, especially age and skill level, tend to be limiting factors
-ex. children with low contextual interference learn better |
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Term
| challenge-point hypothesis |
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Definition
Play
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certain factors limit the generalization of the contextual interference effect
-not applicable to the learning of all motor skill characteristics
-learner characteristics, especially age and skill level, tend to be limiting factors
-ex. children with low contextual interference learn better
limits to contextual interference
-refers to the implementation of specific practice conditions that will optimally challenge the person in a way that will enhance learning
-consider both the difficulty level of the skill and the skill level of the learner
-random practice is optimal for low difficulty levels
-for beginners, low levels of contextual interference will be optimal |
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Term
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Definition
| -the memory and performance disruption that results from performing multiple skills or variations of a skill within the context of practice |
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Term
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Definition
-practice situations involving one variation of a skill
-not as effective as variable practice for learning
-ex. only shooting from the free throw line for practice |
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Term
| contextual interference for beginners |
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Definition
-practice situations involving one variation of a skill
-not as effective as variable practice for learning
-ex. only shooting from the free throw line for practice
constant practice
-high contextual interference is beneficial for learning an actual sport skill |
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Term
| practice variability hypothesis |
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Definition
-high contextual interference is beneficial for learning an actual sport skill
contextual interference for beginners
relates primarily to movement characteristics of the skill performed in practice and test situations |
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Term
| varying practice for closed skills |
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Definition
relates primarily to movement characteristics of the skill performed in practice and test situations
practice variability hypothesis
-determine whether or not the skill involves intertrial variability for regulatory conditions
-if there is no intertrial variability then regulatory conditions should remain constant but non-regulatory conditions hold vary according to expectations for test situations
-if there is intertrial variability then both regulatory conditions and non-regulatory conditions should be varied |
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Term
| implementing practice variability |
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Definition
-determine whether or not the skill involves intertrial variability for regulatory conditions
-if there is no intertrial variability then regulatory conditions should remain constant but non-regulatory conditions hold vary according to expectations for test situations
-if there is intertrial variability then both regulatory conditions and non-regulatory conditions should be varied
varying practice for closed skills
-take into account the characteristics of this physical contact in which he or she will perform the skill and the skill characteristics that the performance situation will require
-effective transfer is a function of the similarities between skill, context and cognitive processing characteristics of the practice and test situations |
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Term
| contextual interference for skilled individuals |
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Definition
-high contextual interference is still beneficial
-ex. advanced baseball players hitting different types of pitches |
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Term
| practice specificity for cognitive processing |
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Definition
| -the type of practice that is best when a person is learning a skill is practice that requires the same type of cognitive processing activity that will be required in a transfer test, regardless of physical similarity between practice and test situations |
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Term
| high contextual interference |
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Definition
-when the practice schedule involves a random arrangement of trials so that all the task variations are performed in each practice schedule
-variation on each trial would be randomly determined |
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Term
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Definition
-when the practice schedule involves a random arrangement of trials so that all the task variations are performed in each practice schedule
-variation on each trial would be randomly determined
high contextual interference
-practice variability is usually associated with an increased amount of performance error during practice
-trial-and-error practice leads to better performance on transfer tests that involve a variation of the practiced tests |
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Term
| practice specificity hypothesis |
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Definition
-relates primarily to certain characteristics associated with practice and test contexts
-sensory-perceptual information available, the environmental context in which the skill is performed, the cognitive processing requirements |
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Term
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Definition
-relates primarily to certain characteristics associated with practice and test contexts
-sensory-perceptual information available, the environmental context in which the skill is performed, the cognitive processing requirements
practice specificity hypothesis
-involves several variations of practicing the skill
-yields better learning than constant practice
-ex. practicing basketball shooting from different lines on the court |
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Term
| practice specificity hypothesis |
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Definition
the view that motor skill learning depends on practice condition characteristics, especially the sensory/perceptual information available, performance context characteristics, and cognitive processes involved
-the more elements two skills or situations have in common, the greater the amount of transfer of learning or performance |
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Term
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Definition
the view that motor skill learning depends on practice condition characteristics, especially the sensory/perceptual information available, performance context characteristics, and cognitive processes involved
-the more elements two skills or situations have in common, the greater the amount of transfer of learning or performance
practice specificity hypothesis
-the effect is related to the elaboration of the memory representation of the skill variations that a learner is practicing
-random practices causes the performer to engage in different strategies and retains more skill variations in working memory
-engaging in cognitive activity during practice develops a more elaborate memory representation for the skills that he or she can access on a test |
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Term
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Definition
| the variety of movement and context characteristics a person experiences while practicing a skill |
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Term
| low contextual interference |
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Definition
| -results from a schedule that organizes the practice of each task variation in its on block, or unit of time |
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Term
| varying practice for open skills |
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Definition
-in each performance of the skill certain characteristics are new to the performer
-in addition to variations of non regulatory contains, practice needs to include a variety of experiences with regulatory conditions that change from one attempt to another
-ex. preparing to return a tennis serve |
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Term
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Definition
| practice that continues beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion |
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Term
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Definition
-an interesting combination of cognitive and motor components that is well suited to benefits from an over learning practice strategy
-typically requires a series of movements that are individually easy to perform but when put together they must know what movements to make in what order |
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Term
| point of diminishing returns |
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Definition
-although additional practice is beneficial, increasing the amount of additional practice beyond a certain amount is not proportionally more beneficial to retention performance
-dynamic balance skills experiment |
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Term
| learning deficits from overlearning |
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Definition
-although additional practice is beneficial, increasing the amount of additional practice beyond a certain amount is not proportionally more beneficial to retention performance
-dynamic balance skills experiment
point of diminishing returns
-learning deficits can result when too much over learning is involved in learning of motor skills that are simple and easy to learn; this effect is probably due to a decrease in the amount of cognitive effort applied after a certain amount of practice |
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Term
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Definition
-spacing of practice
-concerns about between-trial rest intervals, the amount of practice during each session, and amount of rest between sessions |
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Term
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Definition
-a practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is very short
-longer active practice, shorter rest periods, fewer practice sessions |
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Term
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Definition
-a practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is relatively long
-each session is shorter, but they are stretched over a longer period of time
-longer rest intervals |
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Term
| benefit of more/shorter practices |
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Definition
-a practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is relatively long
-each session is shorter, but they are stretched over a longer period of time
-longer rest intervals
distributed practice
-benefit of distributed practice, leads to better learning
-ex. postal worker training showed shorter practices over a longer period of time was the most beneficial |
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Term
| explanations of distributed practice benefit |
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Definition
-benefit of distributed practice, leads to better learning
-ex. postal worker training showed shorter practices over a longer period of time was the most beneficial
benefit of more/shorter practices
1. fatigue negatively influences learning for massed practice schedules
2. massing of practice within a day or a few days may reduce the amount of cognitive effort used on each trial because the skill can become monotonous or boring
3. memory consolidation (long-term memory storage process) requires a certain amount of time without additional practice of the same skill to transform a relatively unstable memory into a permanent one. Memory consolidation works better on distributed practice then massed practice |
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Term
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Definition
-the amount of rest a person has between practice trials
-when length of the intertrial interval for a series of practice trials is the concern, the type of skill being learned is an important consideration |
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Term
| continuous motor skill learning |
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Definition
-the amount of rest a person has between practice trials
-when length of the intertrial interval for a series of practice trials is the concern, the type of skill being learned is an important consideration
intertrial interval
-distributed schedules lead to better learning than massed schedules for learning continuous motor skills |
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Term
| discrete motor skill learning |
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Definition
| -massed practice schedules result in better learning for discrete motor skills |
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