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Brain- Prosencephalon (Telencephalon- Cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, basal forebrain. and Diencephalon- Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus). Mesencephalon (cerebral peduncles, midbrain aqueduct). Rhombencephalon (Metencephalon- Pons, cerebellum. and Myelencephalon- Medulla)
Spinal Cord- cervicxal, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal |
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Sensory (Afferents)
Motor (Efferents)- Somatic (Voluntary) and Automatic/Involuntary- Parasympathetic, sympathetic, enteric |
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| Components of PNS (peripheral nervous system) |
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| cranial nerves and ganglia, spinal nerves and dorsal root ganglia, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and ganglia, enteric nervous system |
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| specialized macrophages for phagocytosis |
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| radial glia, astrocytes (or astroglia), oligodendrocytes (oligos), ependyma, schwann cells |
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| neurodevelopment; neuronal progenitors and scaffold upon which neurons migrate and find their proper place |
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| regulate chemical environment, recycle neurotransmitters |
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| line the ventricles, produce CSF |
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| in PNS make myelin, work as phagocytes |
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| images of different types of glia |
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| overall 1:1 with neurons; in cortex ~4:1 glia:neurons; ratio changes in different areas according to needs |
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| general maintenance, clean up, physical support, homeostasis, supply nutrients, provide insulation—make myelin, modulation of neurotransmission, etc. |
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| debate about number of glia |
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| adult male human—6.1 +/- 8.1 billion neurons and about the same number of glia and is not that special... it is an isometrically scaled up primate brain... it is not the case that it is larger than expected for a mammal of its size |
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Definition
A, C, D:
Golgi staining
in the prefrontal cortex of the ferret
B:
intracellular filling with a fluorescent dye |
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| classification of neurons |
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Definition
| There are different ways to classify neurons and within each broad classification scheme there are usually subgroups according to secondary criteria. In general, neurons are classified according to either: function, morphology, number |
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| classification of neurons details for function, morphology, number |
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Definition
- Function: e.g., motor vs. sensory
-Morphology:
• By soma or overall shape/polarity: multipolar, pseudounipolar and bipolar
• By soma size: e.g., magnocellular vs. parvocellular, Betz cells vs. granule cells, etc.
• By soma shape: pyramidal vs. non-pyramidal
• By where the axon goes: projection cell vs. interneuron
• By shape of the axon: basket cells, chandelier cells, etc.
• By whether their dendrites have spines or not: spiny, pseudospiny, aspiny, etc.
- Number: ~20 to 100 x 109; among them they make ~1 x 1014 synaptic connections
- Functions: processing of sensory information—motor commands—higher cognitive functions—memory—etc. Processes that make humans very unique as a species |
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[image]
What you have in this diagram is differences between chemical and electrical synapses. Early on in development, electrical synapses are probably the main ones. But in the adult brain-- in the adult human brain, they also exist, but they are not that prominent. One advantage and difference between electrical synapses and chemical synapses is that in electrical synapses, there is immediate and easy exchange of all types of chemicals between the cytoplasms of both cells in both. That also creates what we call coupling potentials. In other words electric signals that come from one cell are easily transmitted into the next cell from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic and vice versa.
Chemical synapses that you have here on the left are, on the other hand, the most prominent in the nervous system in human. In here, what you have is a clear separation between the two cells-- between the presynaptic and the postsynaptic, the presynaptic, for instance, being one of those [INAUDIBLE] I already mentioned from actions, and the postsynaptic being, for one [INAUDIBLE] in a dendrite of another cell. Embedded in the membrane, both of the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells, you have different types of receptors.
In here, I want to point out metabotropic receptors and ionotropic receptors. Difference between them is that in the case or ionotropic, they open and allow different types of items to go in or out, depending on the concentration gradients. They are very fast. Metabotropic, on the other hand, are usually giving rise to second messenger systems, and therefore they have much lower dynamics. In this table that has two parts, it's important for you to look at the different transmitters. |
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| main excitatory neurotransmitter |
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Definition
| glutamate, AMPA/ kainate, NMDA, Metabotropic receptors, entire CNS projections |
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| main inhibitory neurotransmitter |
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Definition
| GABA, GABA1,2,3 receptors, entire CNS projections and retina |
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| nicotininc- muscle contraction, autonomic functions. muscarinic- parasympathetic functions. muscarinic and nicotinic subtypes- neuromodulation |
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| alpha and beta- sympathetic functions on smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. alpha1a-D and 2a-d, Beta 1-3- nueromodulation |
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| H1-3- main excitatory neuromodulation |
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| glycine receptors, inhibitory neurotransmission |
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| Drugs which block Na+ channels |
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Definition
(classes Ia, Ib, Ic)
Local anesthetics: e.g., lidocaine—cell cannot depolarize; no transmission; no pain |
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| Drugs that block K+ channels |
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(class III)
4-aminopyridine (4-AP)—tetraethylamonium chloride (TEA) |
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| (class II) are beta-adrenergic blocking agents; commonly used to manage cardiac arrhythmias |
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| muscle relaxant; used in arrows by indigenous people in the Amazon; blocks nicotinic ACh receptors; antidote: acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor e.g., neostigmine |
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| muscarinic antagonist—blocks muscarinic ACh receptors; treatment of motion sickness |
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| For medical applications, you usually want substances whose action is |
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| reversible, action= (agonist antagonist) |
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| channelopaties: Diseases caused by abnormal function of ion channels Abnormality could be congenital or acquired (usually autoimmune attack). Examples? |
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Definition
seizure- K+ channels, Different kinds, different strengths, impair attention and mental state.
Myasthenia gravis- Na+ channels/ligand-gated, Autoimmune disease—ACh receptors are blocked at the neuromuscular junction—fatigue.
cystic fibrosis- Cl- channels, Fibrosis and cysts formation in the pancreas; recessive genetic disease debilitating—difficulty to breath.
retinitis pigmentosa- Non-specific channels/ligand-gated, Progressive deterioration of photoreceptors—leads to blindness |
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Definition
CNS: multiple sclerosis
PNS: Guillain-Barré syndrome
Antibodies against central basic protein cause: central demyelination—allergic encephalomyelitis
Antibodies against peripheral basic protein cause: peripheral demyelination—allergic neuritis |
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| demyelinating diseases- intra myelin split, PNS, metals |
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Definition
Intra myelin split intoxication (e.g., with triethyl tin) forms focal swellings in the CNS myelin; PNS not affected
PNS: fibrils and crystalloid formations in Schwann cells may impede transport and damage myelin (animal model: mutant hamster with hind leg paralysis)
Metals, including heavy metals, seem to be more poisonous for the CNS than for the PNS Ba, Cs, intoxication... etc. |
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