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| what determines a protein's function? |
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| the shape of the amino acids |
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one type of gene specifies one type of protein
true? |
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| false--> alternative splicing! one string of DNA can code for lots of parts of different proteins |
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| each codon codes for one amino acid, but each amino acid has different codons that correspond to it |
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| DNA inherited from your parents |
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| different versions of traits |
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| single base pair mutations can result in proteins with slightly different structures that can do their job a little better or a little worse that others |
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| changing one base pair, may not change the amino acid because of redundancy in the code= neutral mutation |
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| copying an extra bp in to the DNA code |
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| patterns of mutations = evolutionary history |
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| Throughout the animal kingdom, creatures large and small, creatures in the air, creatures in the sea, etc., etc., all of them have same amino acid sequence to this protein – with one exception. Among mammals, there are different amino acids at positions #11 and 27. All mammals have that difference at 11 and 27, but there is something different about primates. They have the distinctive mammalian amino acids at 11 and 27, and an additional amino acid change at position 73. Every primate….except for the apes…. And so on. What that allows you to do is construct an evolutionary tree of when the new versions of the protein arose, as a function of when, say, primates split off from other mammals. This general approach can be used in more complicated ways to figure out what the ancestral version of an existing protein. |
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| if the changes between the genes are at about 1/3 on the amino acid level |
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| when differences in a gene between two species differs by 75% in the amino acid sequence. conserved dramatic changes in the genome that were obviously adaptive |
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| negative/ stabilizing selection |
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Definition
| number of changes in nucleotides are much lower than expected, thus indicating the importance of the conservation of this gene |
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| when a mutation changes how well a particular protein does its job |
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| microevolutionary change as it applies to behavior |
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| a detoxifying protein exists in the system to fight a toxin.. mutation means this protein cannot function, and the toxin builds up in the brain causing brain damage (PKU) phenyketonuria |
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| key role of gradualism in sociobiological thinking |
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| every little bit of genetic difference, resulting in every little bit of protein function, resulting in every little bit of difference of behavior and so on. |
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macro evolution, stephen j gould, niles eldredge.
popular with paleontologists
long periods of stasis followed by periods of rough, saltatory change
most of the time there is stasis, so most of the time sociobiology has nothing to do with anything |
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| Sociobiologists rebuttal to punctuated equilibrium |
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Definition
-the fossil record is incomplete
-different time scales in logic
-paleontology is about bones, none of the tissue evolution is accessible via the fossil record
-no molecular mechanism can explain macro evolution SHOW ME THE GENES! |
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different exons make it to the protein, thus, the whole gene does not code for the same protein, and can code for several different proteins depending on the combinations of introns and exons
so is this one gene, or 7 genes??
differential splicing enzyme |
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| regulatory region in front of the DNA sequence which allows that gene to be transcribed depending on exogenous cues |
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| proteins that depend on outside factors to change their conformations so they can bind to the promoting sequence of the gene and then transcribe the downstream gene |
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| opposite of promoters. actually, genes are flanked by on/off switches |
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| intracellular effects on transcription factors |
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Definition
transcription factors are what cause genes to turn off and on
suppose a gene is running out of glucose... a low energy signal is detected by a transcription factor which binds to the promoter of the glucose transporter protein, now we can get more glucose in! |
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| inter cellular environment effects on transcription factors |
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Definition
| hormones travel through the blood stream, activate transcription factor...etc. |
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| environment effects on transcription factors |
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Definition
| odorant in mother mouse nose gets a whiff of baby, a receptor is activated and a bunch of steps later, a TF is active that enhances prolactic and oxytocin synthesis, which help mediate maternal behavior. |
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| If-Then clauses in molecular biology |
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promoters introduce a world of contingency clauses
If you smell your baby, then you induce genes related to nursing |
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| sheath around the DNA, sheilds DNA from transcription factors, and thus from transcribing... until it is unwound and it allows more access to the specific gene. another level of regulation |
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gene expression is changed for a lifetime without an actual change in the DNA sequence. Michael Meaney showed that a certain style of rat mothering changes the expression of genes in pups and thus changes the rat stress response throughout life
i.e. mom's mothering style can influence genetic events |
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| a string of amino acids coded for by a particular exon will have an effect on several genes depending on how often that exon is copied into other proteins. many implications for these kinds of proteins |
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| implications of mutations at the regulatory areas of genes |
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Definition
| think about that! can you imagine!?!? |
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| mutation in promoter sequence: implications |
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Definition
| old transcription factor no longer binds to the promoter, or a whole new transcription factor can bind to this promoter |
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| mechanisms for small DNA changes have potentially huge effects in... |
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Definition
| splicing enzymes, promoting regions, transcription factors, changes in exons that code for multiple genes |
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| Barbara McClintock: discovered jumping genes.. discovered in plants first mostly because this is very prevalent in plants since the individual plant cant modify its behavior, it shuffles its genes around in hopes of coming up with something that it might consider useful ... common in parasites. in mammals, immune system is hot spot for transposons |
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transposing a promoter could lead to a brand new if/then clause.. example of seasonal mating... transpose the if of "if it is not raining, then retain more water" over in to a sexual reproductive gene "if it is not raining, then ovulate."
mechanism for RAPID evolutionary change |
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| allows us to keep the functional gene, but mess with its copy to see if we can get something better going on with it. |
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| the ability to change the function of several proteins and genes can result in a survival disaster. thus, this motivates a level of conservatism in the genome. most macroevolutionary changes are going to be bad and selected against, thus resulting in general stasis |
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| how does evolutionary change occur if the price of complexity is stasis? |
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| ecological disaster that makes a drastically different genetic profile adventageous.. aka.. EVOLUTIONARY BOTTLENECK |
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| what do the various forms of mutation on a molecular level suggest about evolution? |
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Definition
-point mutation can result in ho well a protein does its job= microevolution
-change for a single nucleotide in an exon that is implicated in a wide variety of proteins can have very detrimental effects and is thus selected against, providing stasis.. macroevolution
-changes in regulatory regions of the DNA change what the protein does, when it does it and which one it effetcs.. the biggest difference between humans and chimps is in the transcription factor regions of the DNA
-transposing promoters can produce brand new if-then clauses |
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| instance of macrevolution after 35 generations, a totally different looking animal emerged |
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| examples of macro evolution |
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changes in rats since the 1850s
diabetes prevelance in pacific islandersis decreasing, changing genetic profiles
-viruses and bacteria evolving antibiotic resistance |
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| reconciliation of macro and micro evolution |
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| sure, evolution is occuring in a stepwise matter, but the steps are interspersed, and at a different time scale, they may very well look like a gradual change over time |
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