Term
| Four Sources of Stem Cells |
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Definition
-Adult Stem Cells
-Embryonic Stem Cells (from in vitro fert. blastocysts)
-Embryonic Stem Cells (from somatic nuclear transfer)
-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
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Term
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Definition
| Laboratory technique for creating an ovum with a donor nucleus. Nucleus from single cell extracted and inserted into enucleated egg cell. Allow to develop til blastocyst stage. Insert normal gene into mutant cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Process by which normal gene is reintegrated into mutant cells in Somatic Nuclear Transfer. Embryonic Stem cells are incubated with DNA. 1/10,000,000 time the normal gene recombines w/ the DNA in the exact right place. |
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Term
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Definition
| Outer layer of mammalian blastocyst; necessary for embryo. |
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Definition
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
-Adult stem cells that have been injected with 4 genes normally expressed in Inner Cell Mass, converting them into ES cells. These 4 genes are injected via |
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Term
| Two methods for establishing Stable Patterns of Gene Expression |
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Definition
1) Positive Feedback (a loop, basically)
2) Epigenetic Modification (modify the histone proteins, certain regions stop being transcribable) |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells that remain "undifferentiated"/with potential in the adult. |
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Term
| Adult Stem Cell Therapies (2 types) |
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Definition
-Bone Marrow transplants (restore the ability of patients to make blood cells.)
-Skin grafts |
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Term
| Immune System (2 Responses) |
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Definition
1) Non-specific inflammatory response: white blood cells recognize general features of bacteria or cellular debris and digest them.
2) Specific Immune Response: blood cells recognize specific "foreign" molecules and destroy the cells that carry them. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Protein made by immune cells (lock)
-Four protein subunits, two heavy chains and two light chains. |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the antigen that they antibody fits around. |
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Term
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Definition
| White Blood Cell; binds to exposed parts of antigens |
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Term
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Definition
| Proteins that bind to the surface of antibodies and create pores in the surface to help absorb antigens. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells in the immune system that make antibodies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Another type of cell in the immune system that produces |
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Term
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Definition
| Human Severe Combined Immunodeficiency: people with SCID-X lack a growth factor receptor required for T Cell development. Fix: take a cloned normal SCID gene, insert into a virus, infect T cell predecessors with virus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Expose an organism (a plant) to radiation or chemicals to generate non-specific changes. Find the ones that have the desired traits |
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Term
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Definition
| Cross breed plants or animals w/ certain traits to maintain or enhance those traits. |
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Definition
| Making plants from undifferentiated plant cells, like those that cover wounds. |
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Term
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Definition
| Engineer in genes from some other organism that give the desired traits. Plasmid vector w/ antibiotic resistant gene + transgene (from other organism) goes into bacteria, which produces much more of the gene, which goes into tha animal cell. |
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Term
| Can Biotechnology be used to increase crop yield? |
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Definition
| No, not yet! Yield is polygenic (depends on many genes). |
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Term
| Can Biotechnology be use to increase the nutritional content of foods? |
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Definition
| Yes! "Golden rice" with beta carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. |
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Term
| Bacillus thuringiensis Toxin (Bt) |
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Definition
| Produces aggregates of a protoxin that is harmless in humans and animals. Toxic in insects, binds to cells in the gut and stops them from eating. Used to protect plants by recombining the gene into plant cells and growing cells into full grown plants. |
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Term
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Definition
| 4 million in the congo region. Black flies are the carrier |
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Term
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Definition
| Problem arises because the pancreas produces little or no insulin, so little insulin enters the bloodstream and the glucose (from food) is allowed to build up in the bloodstream. Insulin turns on the Glucose Transporter Gene. |
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Term
| Insulin Production Technique |
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Definition
| Recombine normal human cDNA in the place of the Restriction Enzyme of a diabetic insulin gene, clone the gene IN BACTERIA (plasmid), replace into diabetic human. |
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Term
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Definition
| A DNA molecule that is separate from, and can replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA. Occur naturally in bacteria, are double stranded and usually circular. |
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Term
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Definition
| Bovine somatropin: injection of the hormone BST increases milk production. Banned in europe in 2000. |
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Term
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Definition
| In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a process by which egg cells are fertilised by sperm outside the body |
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Term
| Transgenic Animals: technique |
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Definition
| Inject gene cloned by in vitro fert into female. Offspring produce protein of interest in milk |
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Term
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Definition
-all viruses have genes (either DNA or RNA)
-the nucleic acid is surrounded by a protein coat
-some have an envelope (membrane)
-not alive, particle is inanimate.
-delivers the viral genome to a living cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inanimate, but infectious virus particle. Requires living cell for replication. |
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Term
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Definition
| Viruses that infet bacterial cells. |
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Term
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Definition
Attachment
Penetration / Entry
Uncoating
Replication and Expression
Assembly
Release |
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Term
+ strand RNA virus
- strand RNA virus |
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Definition
+ strand: the RNA or single-stranded DNA inserted into the cell can be translated immediately.
- strand: the RNA is the complement of the mRNA and cannot be translated but needs to be copied to its compliment. Influenza is - strand. |
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Term
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Definition
| Method of viral replication in which a prophage is induced from lysogeny. A key difference between the lytic and lysogenic phage cycles is that in the lytic phage, the viral DNA exists as a separate molecule within the bacterial cell, and replicates separately from the host bacterial DNA. Ends in assembly and release. |
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Term
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Definition
| Lysogeny, or the lysogenic cycle, is one of two methods of viral reproduction (the lytic cycle is the other). Lysogeny is characterized by integration of the bacteriophage nucleic acid into the host bacterium's genome. The newly integrated genetic material, called a prophage can be transmitted to daughter cells at each subsequent cell division, and a later event (such as UV radiation) can release it, causing proliferation of new phages via the lytic cycle. |
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Term
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Definition
- strand virus that infects cells in the upper respiratory tract. Has N and M proteins. N proteins foster entry into the host cells, M proteins cause adhesion. Mutations in H and N Proteins avoid the Immune Response:
Antibodies to last year’s virus don’t work on this year’s virus |
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Term
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Definition
Two different viruses infect the same cell and swap genes
or parts of genes to make new proteins or combinations of proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| 16 H proteins, 9 N proteins --> H1N1, H2N1 etc |
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Term
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Definition
| T-Helper immune cell that the HIV virus infects. In HIV patients, the viral and the host membranes fuse and the viral RNA and the viral reverse transcriptase protein are released into the CD4 cell |
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Term
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Definition
| infection of CD4 cells leads to T cell death, or massive T-cell death. W/o T-cells NO immune response. |
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Term
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Definition
| people w deletions in the CCR5 gene are immune to HIV. |
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Term
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Definition
Two reverse Transcriptase inhibitors (inhibit initial union of viral RNA with CD4 cell DNA)
One Protease inhibitor (inhibits release of new viral out of cell, at the end of the cycle.) |
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Term
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Definition
| Bits of DNA or RNA that are mobile, can move around by "cut and paste" (DNA transposons) or "copy and paste" (RNA transposons) |
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Term
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Definition
Short interspersed Elements: Length: 100-500 nt
Copy Number: up to 1 million |
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Term
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Definition
| Long interspersed elements: up to 7000 nt, copy number 4000-10,000. |
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Term
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Definition
| Plasmid in Bacteria which is lost every 1/10000 cell divisions. Bacteria w/o P1 plasmid die. |
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Term
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Definition
| Toxin-antitoxin systems. Each consists of a pair of genes that specify two components: a stable toxin and an unstable antitoxin that interferes with the lethal action of the toxin. See PHD and Doc example on P1 plasmids. |
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Term
| Bacteria - two major types |
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Definition
| Prokaryotic cells w/ flagella - Gram positive (crystal violet stain because of the high amount of peptidoglycan in the cell wall) and Gram negative (endotoxin layer, pathogenic capability.) |
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Term
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Definition
| Break down food, store fat, aid in development, synthesize vitamin K, inherited from mother, increase rate of replacement of intestinal lining cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Two-component signalling in bacteria. Signal sensor Kinase sends signal to Response Regulator protein --> output. |
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Term
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Definition
| Multiple bacterial inputs hit multiple Kinase receptors --> one response regulator protein--> output |
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Term
| Two ideas for bacterial movement |
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Definition
1) fish tail
2) propellor
Run and tumble via flagellum going either CCW (run) or CW (tumble) |
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Term
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Definition
| Process by which bacteria move, alternating run and tumble, towards increasing attractant. Attractants (various) -> specific receptors on bacteria membrane -> kinase sensor -> response regulator -> motor -> flagella (cw or ccw) |
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Term
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Definition
| Mutagenesis ( /mjuːtəˈdʒɛnɪsɪs/) is a process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed in a stable manner, resulting in a mutation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Receptor -> dual kinases -> trans phosphorylation -> many steps -> nucleus (transcription.) |
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Term
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Definition
| Relationship in which one entity (the human body) benefits while the other (the bacteria) is neutral |
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Term
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Definition
| Vibrio fischeri is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium found globally in marine environments.[1] V. fischeri has bioluminescent properties, and is found predominantly in symbiosis with various marine animals, such as the bobtail squid. Quorum sensing example. |
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Term
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Definition
| a system of stimulus and response correlated to population density. |
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Term
| Cystic Fibrosis/ P. aeruginosa |
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Definition
| People w/ cystic fibrosis always have a bacterial infection in their lungs. P. aeruginosa is this bacteria. It makes a biofilm in the lung, covers itself w/ this goop that makes it impervious to antibiotics, and then as a group secretes thousands of virulence factors (toxins) into the lungs. Generally, bacteria don’t want to secrete these virulence factors because they’re what your immune system/antibodies are looking for. P. aeruginosa’s strategy is to wait until there are tons of it in one area to secrete all at once, thus overpowering the immune system. They figure out when to do this by quorum sensing. |
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Term
| Two enzyme quorum sensing |
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Definition
-a way to know self/bacteria cells of their kind (LuxR for example, Signal 1)
-a way to know other bacteria and communicate w/ them (Signal 2, AI-2) |
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Term
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Definition
1) A-B toxins: A subunit has toxic enzymatic activity, B subunit binds to host cell.
2) Hemolysins/Phospholipases: Disorganize the host cell
membranes.
3) Superantigens: Stimulate T cells to release cytokines. |
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Term
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Definition
1) Adhesion
2) Type III Secretion (syringe) - like the flagella
3) Injection of effector proteins |
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Term
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Definition
Caused by four species of protozoa that infect human red blood cells (Plasmodium)
The parasite resides in a particular kind of mosquito (Anopheles). |
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Term
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Definition
| Protein that carries oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide back to lungs. |
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Term
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Definition
| A Missense mutation in which T replaces an A in the DNA encoting the beta-globin gene -> Hemoglobin proteins stick together, changing the shape of cells to sickles that get clogged in blood vessels -> not enough oxygen in the blood. |
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Term
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Definition
Selection actively maintains two or more alleles at a genetic locus. IE the situation with HbA and HbS in which one protects against sickle-cell anemia and the other against malaria. Heterozygotes have a selective
Advantage. Homozygotes for HbS die from sickle cell disease and IMPORTANTLY homozygotes for HbA (wild type) die of malaria |
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Term
| Three consequences of natural selection |
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Definition
Stability -- Keeps useful genes intact in the population
Better adaptation -- Allows new beneficial variants to increase in frequency
Speciation -- enhancing the two extremes of a population at the expense of the middle |
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Term
| Why do we maintain multiple alleles in spite of nat selection? |
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Definition
two possibilities: 1) new mutations arise all the time.
2) Our environment is unstable so that no particular genetic variant is ideal |
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Term
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Definition
Altruism scale: I gave X to X
Empathy scale: I like to watch people open presents. |
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Term
| Altruism in Squirrel danger calling |
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Definition
| The mothers bring up the babies, and then the males disperse to other squirrel populations at 2 but the females stay put. The females, therefore, are much more closely related to one another than the males. It’s not about love, it’s about genes. The males don’t care if the children get raised because they aren’t related to most of them. Females w/ relatives in the population (doesn't matter what kind) call more. |
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Term
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Definition
offspring = 0.5
siblings = 0.5
mother = 0.5
half siblings = 0.25
cousins = 0.125 |
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Term
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Definition
| individual fitness + fitness derived via representation of genes in offspring of relatives who owe their existence to the altruist's help. This theory about altruism only works for small genetically interrelated populations where immediate relatives benefit |
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Term
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Definition
| Vampire bats will regurgitate blood into the mouth of one who didn't eat even if they're not related. Cost benefit analysis. The benefit to the recipient (+18 hrs til starvation) is greater than the loss for the giver (-6 hrs til starvation). Bats discriminate against cheaters who get blood but never give blood in return |
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