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| Word for the Islamic community of believers, all Muslims - eventually came to be used as a translation for "nation" |
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Subjects, expected to produce through labor and taxes enough to support the elite.
Part of the fourth of four governing principles of the Ottoman Empire.
Compare to latter idea of citizen |
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| Lebanon Maronite Christian from Syria, impressed by American missionaries, converted to Protestantism. Founded the National School, which taught Arabic and science - wanted to "spread knowledge and appreciation of the Arabic language" but also encourage receptiveness to modern thought |
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| Professional standing infantry, slave army, paid regular salary. Known for "discipline, morale, and professionalism," eventually became a threat to the state, expanding and protecting privileges. Rebelled and deposed Selim III for his military reforms in 1806. Massacred and crushed by Mahmud II in 1826 |
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| Architect of Revisionist Zionism. Horrified by Jewish passivity, organized self-defense groups and advocated militarism. Founded youth group, Betar, and the Irgun Zvai Leumi, an underground militia around 1930. Irgun committed appalling terrorist acts. Represented the fourth Aliyah and a break with Labor Zionism |
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| Ottoman system of organization of religious communities for non-Muslim subjects - Greek Orthodox, Judaism, Armenian Christianity. Decrees under the Tanzimat were meant to limit millet autonomy and emphasized Ottomanism |
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| Empire in Iran, 1501-1736. Ruler Isma'il extended borders and proclaimed Shi'ism as the state religion, renounced Sunnism and imported Shi'a ulama. Troubled by factitious tribesmen. Shah Abbas centralized land and government and built up prosperity of the capital, Isfahan. Dynasty eventually crumbled to rebellious tribes. |
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| Followers of religions tolerated by law, freedom of practice and right to manage internal affairs, but not equal to Muslims and made to pay poll tax. |
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| Represents the loss of Ottoman superiority. In 1690 the Ottoman Empire was engaged in wars with both Austria and Russia, lost both. Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 ceded most of Hungary to Hapsburgs and represented first major loss of European territory. From that point on, Ottomans on defensive. |
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| Disciple of Rashid Pasha, rose through diplomatic ranks quickly. Ambassador to London for five years, returned to Istanbul and became minster of foreign affairs and later grand vizier (~1850). Symbol of bureaucratic absolutism during Tanzimat |
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Part of Tanzimat, centralizing measure, required all landowners to register their land with the government in exchange for title deed. Was subverted by notables, led to creation of vast private estates at the expense of peasants.
Cl. pg. 92 |
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| Ottoman Sultan 1789-1806: made military improvement a priority, created nizam-i jedid. Opened permanent embassies in European capitalis, opening channels from the West to Ottomans. Still lacked grounding in foreign languages, however. Selim was overthrown by Janissaries, derebeys, and the ulama in 1826 |
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| Selim's new infantry corps, modeled after European standards. Founded in 1797, unable to integrate with the rest of the army - aroused opposition from Janissaries and derebeys, were disbanded upon Selim's overthrow. |
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| Dynasty that was crushed by Ottomans, then revived in 1700s, making Egypt effectively autonomous. No centralized government, just a balance of competing households. French invaded Egypt in 1798 and defeated Mamluks, then British defeated the French fleet. Power vacuum led to Muhammad Ali. 1811 Mamluk leaders massacred by Ali. |
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| Albanian, Ottoman governor of Egypt 1805-1848. Desired to secure independence from Ottomans and establish a hereditary dynasty - main purpose of all his reforms was to strengthen military. Established officers' training school with European instructors, sent training missions abroad, founded educational institutions in medicine and engineering to support military. Founded School of Languages 1835. Conscripted soldiers, thus creating a national census. Taxed waqf revenues administered by ulama. Developed cotton as Egypt's most lucrative cash crop. Industrialization, monopoly system, reorganization of a centralized bureaucracy. His son Ibrahim captured Meca and Medina, conquered the Sudan, then invaded Syria and pushed Ottoman forces out, became governor (1833-1840). Spread Ali's programs to Syria. Britain/Ottomans/popular uprising eventually forced Ibrahim out. |
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| Waqf was a shari'ah practice that set aside property income for charitable upkeep of mosques and schools, income outside state control for the ulama. Muhammad Ali taxed the waqf, raising revenue and decreasing ulama power. |
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| Founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, very fundamentalist: Quran and hadith only reliable sources. But also reformist: denounced scholars and hereditary practices, encouraged individual responsibility - self-generated purification. Joined with Ibn Sa'ud, local chieftain, eventually captured Mecca. Crushed by Muhammad Ali, but ideals ingrained in Arabian tribes. |
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| Analogy, one of four sources of shari'ah law. When there is no direct precedent in Quran or hdaith, assess it on basis of principles previously accepted for a similar situation. |
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| Sultan 1808-1839, most effective of the latter Ottoman rulers, military reformer who learned from Selim's mistakes. Used Janissaries against derebeys, then massacred Janissaries in 1826 when they protested his new military. Founded institutions for training of civil servants, included instruction in European languages. Tried to direct waqf revenue to the state. Creation of a new favored elite, "the french knowers" |
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| 1854-1856, precipitated by Russian attempts to control Orthodox millet. Ottomans rejected ultimatum, Britain and France came to Ottoman aid. Ended insignificantly, Treaty of Paris ensured that signatories would respect territory of Ottoman Empire. Led to principalities becoming more independent. |
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1900. French-educated upper middle class Egyptian, advocated for Egyptian women. More a modernization of patriarchy than true equality.
The New Woman: fruit of modern civilization, men realized they had been restricting her, she became a refined individual. Addressed to educated youth, very anti-ulama and religious scholars. Claims the Shari'a protects women and grants freedom. Women must be educated so that they can create a good environment in the house for men to succeed. Called for women's divorce rights and end to polygamy along economic reasoning. |
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| Spent five years in France under Muhammad Ali, became director of the School of Languages in 1835. Supervised translation of 2,000 works from foreign languages into Arabic. Path to state employment passed through Paris. |
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| 1863-1879. Demanded rapid Europeanization of Egypt, made little attempt to blend into Islamic traditions. Increased education to develop European-educated elite. Founded Dar al-Ulum school, intended to retrain religious students to become Arabic teachers. School of Languages evolved into Cairo School of Law. Bribed Sultan and was granted autonomy. Created Suez Canal and led Egypt into massive debt, defaulted on loans in 1876. Europe intervened directly in financial efforts, forced Hamid II to depose him as khedive in 1879. |
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| Egyptian peasant who rose to colonel in the army, protested a law against peasant promotions in 1881. Large portion of army supported him, Tawfiq rescined law, but Urabi pushed momentum into a national campaign against Europeans. 1882 appointed minister of war - British felt an Urabist government would not repay debt. In 1882 defeated and captured Urabi, inaugurated British occupation of Egypt. |
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| 1848-1896. Weakest of Qajar shahs, no control outside of Tehran, depended on tribal levies for military force. Manipulated tribal rivalries to survive, but chronically short of funds. Sold offices to highest bidder. Ulama grew in power, dominated education and deemed more important than civil servants. Russia forced economic capitulations from Nasir, British followed suit. Nasir tried to play them off each other with economic concessions, crippled Iranian economy and incited massive revolts led by ulama. Protests managed to revoke by the tobacco and Reuters concessions, power of people. Killed in 1896 |
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| Nasir al-din Shah awarded Baron Reuter the exclusive right to construct all railways, canals, and dams for a modest fee and royalties in 1872. Opposition internally and from Russia was so strong it was canceled in 1873. |
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| Colonial administrator who presided over occupation of Egypt with absolute authority (1883-1907), believed Orientals could never advance without the West. Expanded agricultural production to increase revenue, built the Aswan Dan in 1902, started another railway boom. By 1880s budget showed a surplus, so Cromer was a success. Needs of the peasants, however, were neglected, and Egyptians had no control. Reversed the progressing trend of education from Isma'il and Ali. He also helped separate the Sudan from Egypt, even though Egyptian soldiers had won it - causing outrage. |
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| Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi in 1881, channeling discontent with oppressive Egyptian occupation. Made a virtue of poverty, formed administration similarly to Muhammad, and waged a jihad on Anglo-Egyptian forces, taking Khartoum in 1885. Kitchener conquered it back in 1898. |
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1839-97. Advocated Islamic modernism, opposed European imperialism, called for pan-Islamic unity.
Plan for Islamic Unity: compare to Russia, who is less developed but large and united. Criticizes divisive princes, that cooperation is one of the pillars of Islam. "There is no refuge except in Allah"
Response to Renan: points to successes in past, and to failures of other, older religions. Not Arab world that's flawed, but the fight between religion and science (but if religion is inherently domineering and bad, why does he advocate it?) |
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| Disciple of al-Afghani. Returned to Egypt, appointed mufti in 1899, chief Islamic official. Initiated reforms in court system, tried to demonstrate that Islam was compatible with modernity. Denounced local superstitions and outdated administrative practices represented corruptions from the period of the four Rashidun caliphs. Anything after that should be informed reasoning to fit the situation - thus he called for reopening of itjihad. |
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| Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) |
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| Secret protest society founded by students and civil servants in 1889, viewed Hamid as impediment to urgent reforms. Exiled, but came to power when Hamid was deposed by the army in 1909. Mehmet V, new sultan, was a figurehead. CUP faced opposition, but gradually gained full control - by 1913, established military dictatorship under triumvirate of Enver, Talat, and Jamal Pashas. Was oppressive, but at heart a reformist movement - first years marked by great intellectual freedom. Committed to Ottomanism to preserve Empire, but couldn't abandon Islamic foundation. Suffered multiple attacks and staggering losses of territory, however, and the importance of the Turkish core leftover began to emerge. Turkism began to emerge, ethnic distinction coupled with Islam. Purged old regime, dismissed notable Arab families from power, led to Arabism movements in response. However, the CUP responded with conciliatory appointments, showing that Arabism could be contained within Ottomanism. CUP managed to keep Turks and Arabs united under Ottomanism going into the War. |
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| 1906. British officers accidentally fired on a village woman while hunting, a protest led to an altercation in which one officer was killed. British charged 52 villagers with murder, 32 convicted, and 4 publicly hanged in Dinshaway as punishment. Led to a massive protest of shock and outrage and Cromer's resignation. |
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| Applying informed human reasoning to points not covered in the Quran; the right of learned scholars to interpret the intent of God's revelations. |
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| Promised much, except controversial part of Western Syria. Equates Arab with Islam, mistake, British use it to say certain areas aren't all Arab or all Muslim. |
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| Conference that determined Treaty of Sevres in 1920. Basically partitioned Ottoman Empire - all that was left over was the core of Turkey, minus some key parts of coast. Allies applied self-determination where it suited them, offering no military support - Armenians and Kurds would thus falter quickly. The conference also detached the Arab provinces from the Ottoman Empire and divided them up according to the Sykes-Picot agreement: the mandates of Iraq, Syria, and Palestine. |
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| King of Syria, 1918-1920, after Syrian Congress came together and appointed him. Rebirth of Arab kingdom in former Umayyad capital, as promised by Husayn-McMahon. British chose French support over Faysal, and legalized it with Sam Remo Conference. Faysal was defeated by the French in 1920 and forced into exile. |
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Waves of Jewish immigration into Palestine.
1882: response to Kishinev pogram, 118 dead. Ended with a whimper, but doubled number of Jews in Palestine, nucleus.
1904-1914, 1918-1923: second and third were more ideological, "conquest of land" and "conquest of labor," kibbutzim - created the Labor Party.
1924-1928: fourth aliyah, more urban, small businessmen. Jabotinsky was one of fourth aliyah, founded the Revisionist Party.
1929-1939 |
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| 1867-1909, last Ottoman sultan. Came to power pledging to uphold a constitution, quickly suspended it and reverted to autocracy. Began with cautious reform, ended in oppression against European influence. Emphasized Islamic heritage and adopted role of caliph, rejecting Ottomanism in favor of Pan-Islam. Created Hijaz Railway from Damascus to Medina in 1908. Continued Tanzimat reforms in education, created centralized school system that combined modern sciences with Islamic morality. Rapid development of communications and transport, tightened control over outskirts. But oppressive: press and schools censored, academics imprisoned, national movements suppressed - Armenian genocide, crushed Greek uprising in Crete (but invited European intervention and thus increased mutual West-East distrust). |
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