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| In 1810, the Congregationalists formed The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. It was the task of this board to “commission” missionaries to spread the Gospel in foreign lands. Almost from the start, other denominations, notably the Presbyterians, agreed to work cooperatively with the Congregationalists to spread the Gospel. By 1812, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mission had sent out its first missionaries. Because of the openness of other denominations, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was able to advertise broadly. Their two main concerns were (1) “to establish and support missions among the heathen,” and (2) to translate and publish “the Bible in languages spoken by unevangelized nations.” |
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| The war to end slavery. Those who fought for the end of the slave trade, an end achieved in 1807, were called abolitionists. Note, this is different from emancipation, which desires to end slavery, not the slave trade. |
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There are substantial Pentecostal populations in all of these andother European countries today. What may be surprising is to find Sunday Adelaja’s Embassy of the Blessed Kingdom of God for All Nations, a Pentecostal congregation in Kiev, Ukraine, now boasting a membership of 25,000 members, with 600 satellite congregations around the world, making it the largest church in all of Europe – East or West.
Adelaja is a Nigerian immigrant whose services include the latest technologies and music, and what one Wall Street Journal reporter described as “Ukrainian girls in red uniforms dancing and shaking pompoms on a smoky stage.”[2] His sermons call for repentance and change not only for individuals but also for society, and many of his followers are converts saved from lives on the street where they formerly lived as alcoholics, drug addicts, and prostitutes. Whatever one may think of this type of worship service, it must also be noted that the congregation has developed an extensive evangelistic program and outreach ministries. These programs feed roughly 2000 people a day, while an arm of the church provides food, clothing, housing, and education for about 2000 former street children. It also provides extensive counseling services as well as self-help and re-education programs for those in need.
The Embassy of the Kingdom of God for All Nations has also gained national attention because of its public involvement in the so-called “Orange Revolution” that brought a measure of political change in the Ukraine, and as a result it has been able to attract people from the full range of society, from the very poor, drug and alcohol addicts, a number of members of the Ukrainian Parliament as well as the mayor of Kiev. |
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| A term given to those phenomena that were to be found in the life and culture of the slave before the Middle Passage that found its way into the Christian tradition, sometimes with new meanings attached to them. In some cases, while the phenomenology may have been a shared one (e.g. trance, or tongues, etc.), that is, they looked the same whether practiced in African traditional religion or in American Christianity, the interpretation of the source and/or the content of the phenomenon might differ radically. Africanisms include music, rhythm (including the use of such things as hand clapping and feet stomping, drums, swaying and dancing). The idea of trance and/or “spirit possession,” the use of narrative, testimony, or story telling techniques, the dialogical sermon - whether call and response, or chanted/sung styles, and the “Ring-Shout” were other phenomena. Many White European Americans judged these as bad: emotional and inappropriate syncretism (many different faiths combined). |
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| (1760-1831), born into a slave family. Methodist conversion, joined the Methodist Episcopal Church. Richard Allen’s owner was also converted, concluded that slavery was un-Christian--he freed Richard Allen, who began a preaching ministry, traveling as an evangelist among the Black communities. Bishop Francis Asbury offered him an official itinerant ministry that he refused because he believed that the Methodist Episcopal Church’s stand on slavery would compromise his principles. In 1786, he worshipped at St. George’s Methodist Episcopal Church, in Philadelphia. An event of exclusion of a black man here so upset Richard Allen that he and his friends withdrew from St. George’s; He formed Bethel Society, completely independent of White Methodists in the Philadelphia Conference. In 1816-Bethel Society’s General Convention of all Black Methodists with many Free Blacks and Freedmen. They chose Richard Allen to be their Bishop, and formed the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME). Following the Civil War, many more Freedmen left the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, the church of their owners, and joined the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Thus, the immigration of Africans into an ipso facto segregated society led to the invention of racially segregated churches in many regions of the country. |
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| American Anti-Slavery Society |
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| One of the societies formed by the Tappan brothers, and was very active in the production and distribution of anti-slavery tracts and pamphlets. It organized mass conventions and recruited many of the young people who had been converted under the ministry of Charles G. Finney. Among them was Theodore Weld (1803-1895). |
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| American Colonization Society |
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| Its founding meeting, Washington D.C. in December 1816 and January 1817. Its intent was to repatriate free Blacks back to Africa. In 1821 it established the region that became the country of Liberia in an agreement with local tribal chiefs. From 1822 through at least 1835, and with financial help coming from the United States government as well as from private backers, this society helped at least 15,000 former slaves return to Africa. With the end of the Civil War, the Society ceased to exist. It also worked to recruit African Americans to participate in the missionary movement in Africa. |
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| in Martin Heidegger's work on Being and Time, he explored the nature of “Being” and its relationship to the concept of Angst, a deep sense of anxiety or dread to which all human life seems to be held captive. He believed that in order for one come to understand “Being?” one must face his or her Angst, which in the end, is death |
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| the way of negation that is intended to enable the theologian ultimately to arrive at what is true. (in class discussion, Mel said that this is also defining God by what He is not). One has said that the West say things confidently about God’s nature but Orthodox is more careful and thus uses the negative description. |
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| It is the belief within the Catholic and Orthodox Church that their bishops claim to stand in continuity of great succession from Peter. |
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| From the time of the Revolutionary War and the founding of the Methodist Episcopal Church with Francis Asbury as bishop, the Methodist Episcopal Church had been a nationwide church. It included members from all of the states. At the May 1836 General Conference held in Cincinnati, Ohio, the subject of abolition was on the agenda. When delegates learned that two of their number had participated in antislavery campaigns, they debated the issue for two days. Ultimately they voted to censure the two delegates, and they expressed their unqualified opposition to “modern abolitionism.” They warned the ministry “to abstain from all abolition movements and associations, and to refrain from patronizing any of their publications.” In spite of this action, some continued to support abolitionism. |
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Barth, Karl - (May 10, 1886 - December 10, 1968) - Responded to the liberal gospel which conformed too much to society in the early 20th century and said that it didn’t meet the needs of the people of his church. In response, he wrote his famed The Epistle to the Romans (1919), and eventually led to his magnum opus Church Dogmatics. He thought the gospel needed to be said to people. It needed to be preached and it needed to be practiced.
He would come up with the Barmen Declaration to oppose rising Hitler who would try to utilize the German church to do his bidding. While in general, churches obeyed Hitler, he stood against that. His opposition to Adolf Hitler led to his expulsion from Germany. |
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| Bauer, Ferdinand Christian |
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| Bauer, Ferdinand Christian - Within Biblical studies, however, a veritable revolution was going on. It began with the work of Ferdinand Christian Bauer (1792-1860). He viewed Christianity as a form of messianic Judaism (as taught by Peter – thesis) that was forced to come to terms with Paul (antithesis) who understood it as a universal religion. The resulting synthesis, Bauer concluded, was the earliest form of 2nd Century Catholicism. |
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| Being and Time Martin Heidegger's work on Being and Time was arguably the most important book of his career in that it involved his personal quest for authenticity. He was concerned with what he saw as the dehumanization of individuals during World War I Europe, and in the subsequent moves toward secularization in European culture. Thus, he searched not only for what might be termed “authentic values,” but also for what might be called “authentic existence.” |
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born in Switzerland.
His father influenced by Religious Socialism, largely by ordained in the Swiss Reformed Church.
Like Barth, Brunner was horrified by what he saw in World War I. He criticized the dominant “liberal” theology from the early 20th Century as not addressing the real issues, and he sought to reaffirm many of the themes intrinsic to the Protestant Reformation. Like Barth, he was also appalled at the rise of the Nazis in Germany, and he came to address many of the concerns raised by various nations, including collectivism, totalitarianism, and atheism.
professor of systematic theology at the University of Zürich,
in 1934, his work on Nature and Grace. In this last book, however, he came into conflict with Karl Barth who addressed his response to Brunner in an essay titled with a single word, "Nein!" The reason was simple. While Barth had rejected the possibility of natural revelation, Brunner embraced it. It was in this debate that Barth believed that Brunner had not adequately distanced himself from the liberals of the past. Like Barth, Brunner embraced a dialectic approach to doing theology. But because of Barth’s criticism of his work, Brunner attempted to explain himself further, writing books on The Divine-Human Encounter (1937), and ultimately producing a three-volume Dogmatic Theology. Brunner’s argued that God’s self-revelation was free from the errors of subjectivism on the one hand and objectivism on the other. Thus, he posited that God had made Himself known through Jesus Christ, who “is uniquely made present in the apostolic witness as that is given in the Scriptures and is received by grace through the testimony of the Holy Spirit.” This type of revelation is different from that which is understood through normal scientific processes. That knowledge comes in the personal encounter. Here, of course, he has been influenced by the thinking of Martin Buber’s I and Thou. In this encounter come responsibility, decision, and the living out of this encounter that has been revealed in the pages of the apostolic witness. Hence, Brunner was always deeply concerned with ethical living. |
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(August 20, 1884-1976). He is concerned with the fact that people in scientific world does not understand what theologians are doing. He wants to demythologize the scriptures.
Like Barth, Bultmann viewed “liberal” theology as too humanistic and too anthropocentric. God could be found in the world by some means of human introspection. Bultmann concluded that God was “Wholly Other.” God was God. Human beings were human beings. Sin separated the two, and as a result, humankind was unable to relate to God in any direct fashion. As a result, Bultmann adopted an existentialist platform from which to work. According to Bultmann, the exercise of faith is an existential act. Theology is simply personal reflection on the meaning of that existential act.
Using this approach, then, Bultmann was not so concerned that he was dealing with an historical reality in the text. What was important to him was the existential encounter that the Bible demanded.
Bultmann contended that the worldview held by the earliest Christians was not acceptable in a modern world. The scientific worldview had replaced it. Thus, the gospels needed to be stripped of those concepts such as miracles, which were inconsistent to the worldview held within the modern context. Bultmann’s concern was ultimately to clear away what he believed to be the problems he saw that made it impossible for modern humanity to hear the kerygma, and hence, to be authentically and existentially confronted when they came to the text or heard it preached from the pulpit. |
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| In 1830, neither the general public nor the Church was united on the subject of slavery and abolitionism. Except for the Quakers, most church leaders were not sure that abolition was a good thing. A few ministers, such as Charles Hodge and Horace Bushnell, spoke against slavery but chose not to get involved with any active role. Because the Tappans were committed to Abolition, their homes and store were targets of mob violence and terrorism. Theodore Weld was repeatedly attacked. |
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| Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell |
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| Beginning in 1807, Wilberforce joined forces with Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, another Member of Parliament and a staunch emancipator. Buxton believed that all slavery could end if the natural resources of the African continent became part of the economic package. For the next number of years, Wilberforce and Buxton led the fight to free those who were already serving as slaves. On July 29, 1833, just days before the death of Wilberforce, England’s Parliament passed legislation that outlawed slavery in all British territories. The following summer, over 800,000 slaves, largely in the “West Indies” were freed. |
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| Carey (1761-1834) arrived in India, he began work in the Danish region to avoid antagonizing the East India Company. There, he began by translating the Bible into Bengali. (Syll, p. 64) Many Evangelicals speak of William Carey as “the father of modern missions,” and his work as “the first Protestant mission of modern times.” This is not the case. Still, his work represented something new in missions. As Stephen Neill put it, it marked “the entry of the English-speaking world on a large scale into the missionary enterprise – and it has been the English-speaking world which has provided four-fifths of the non-Roman missionaries from the days of Carey until the present time.” Britain would soon be the birthplace of numerous mission agencies. On October 2, 1792, William Carey formed the Baptist Missionary Society. He, of course, went to India. Like the German missionaries who preceded him under the Danish flag, Carey, who had served as a cobbler and as a school teacher, became convinced of the missionary enterprise shortly after entering the Baptist ministry. While serving as a pastor in Leicester, he founded the Baptist Missionary Society and published a small book on the need for foreign missionaries. In May 1893 after serving four years as a fulltime pastor, he was determined to sail to Calcutta on a British ship. He was stopped at the direction of the British East Indies Company, which made it clear that it did not want him to come because of its official non-intervention policy when dealing with the indigenous population. Throughout much of the 19th Century, William Carey and his team worked to overcome the caste system of Hinduism. As early as 1802, Carey performed a public wedding in which a Sudra woman married a Brahmin man. This made a clear statement that the Church rejected the caste system. The caste system is a complex system that has influenced all of Indian culture. the title of “father of modern missions,” came at a heavy personal price. His first wife suffered from severe mental problems that he found impossible to address. In his focus on ministry, he allegedly neglected his four sons, much to their detriment. And ultimately, he was unable to oversee his own missionary society, and he cut himself off from it. |
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| African-American expressions of Christianity showed remarkable diversity. Many of them clearly stood in continuity with the churches around them. But in 19th Century Africa, and in 19th Century Latin America where Christian missionaries were present, questions were often raised concerning the relationship between Gospel and Culture. On the one hand, many Africans and Afro-Caribbean people or Afro-Brazilian people committed themselves to a fully Christian faith and life. On the other hand, many of them acted in ways that demonstrated discontinuity with the missionary or the mother Churches. This latter category invented new ways of mixing traditional African religious themes, ideas, and practices with Christian ones. The end result was the production of new religious movements whose syncretism went beyond the boundaries of orthodoxy. These newer religious movements have been called “Cargo cults” and they have since made significant impact in places like Haiti (Voodoo), Cuba (Santería), Brazil (Candomblé and Umbanda), Jamaica (Obeayisne), Trinidad (Shango Cult), and elsewhere. These religions have since penetrated both Canada and the United States, coming as a product of immigration from these regions of the Caribbean and Latin America. |
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| Chauncey, Charles and Jonathan Mayhew (p 36)—viewed Enlightenment in New England as emotionally excessive. In reaction against what they viewed as these emotional excesses, Chauncy, and Mayhew, fully embraced the “Enlightenment”. They used it as a tool by which to exalt human reason and to demean the emotional side of religious experience. Their resulting theology increasingly led them to a “rational” faith, and in 1819, it led them to found Unitarianism (God as one person vs trinitarianism person) |
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| Unlike the practice in the West, there is no separation between the time of baptism and chrismation (sometimes equated with confirmation) through which the candidate is said to receive the Holy Spirit. Chrismation involves an anointing with oil (the chrism) that symbolizes the reception of the Holy Spirit. |
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| Church Missionary Society |
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| Britain would soon be the birthplace of numerous mission agencies. On October 2, 1792, William Carey formed the Baptist Missionary Society. He, of course, went to India. In 1795, the Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists formed the London Missionary Society. It established missions in the South Pacific and in India. The Church Missionary Society (CMS) related to the Anglican Church was established in April 1799. It drew its membership from the Evangelical wing of the Anglican Church, and it sent missionaries to West and to South Africa. By 1804, the British and Foreign Bible Society had also been formed. |
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in sparsely populated areas of the United States it always has been common for clergy in many denominations to serve more than one congregation at a time, a form of church organization sometimes called a "preaching circuit." Circuit riders were clergy in theMethodist Episcopal Church and related denominations. Francis Asbury (1745-1816), the founding bishop of American Methodism, established the precedent for circuit riding, having traveled 270,000 miles and preached 16,000 sermons as he made his way throughout early frontier America supervising clergy.
An 1844 survey of Methodist circuit riders led to the observation that 200 of them owned some 1600 slaves between them, an average of 8 slaves for every preacher. Some preachers even served on the “slave patrols” that searched for runaway slaves in order to return them to their owners. |
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| Colonialism is a term that receives a great deal of attention in discussions surrounding historiography, anthropology, globalization, and multi-cultural studies. Many of the discussions that take the issue seriously concentrate on the negative aspects of colonialism. Far fewer concentrate on its positive contributions. Both were present. What are offered as colonialist activities need to be studied carefully in order to avoid simplistic and at times, erroneous conclusions. It is absolutely clear that many aspects of colonialism as it emerged between the 16th and 20th Centuries are worthy of criticism. But for us to stop the evaluation process without looking also at colonialism’s positive contributions would be less than fair. We need not look for one positive element to counter balance each negative element, but we need to be open to both sides of the discussion. For all its problems, in many places colonialism provided a huge leap forward in developing national and regional infrastructures, for example, in the development of roads, schools, hospitals, and the like and in addressing larger social issues such as the place of women in society (e.g. feet binding in China, child brides in India, female genital mutilation in parts of Africa, etc.). |
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| treaties that declared specific territories as places in which various denominations were given exclusive rights to set up missions. Splitting up the map by religious denomination. They work for a little while, but soon lines cross, and also those not present didn’t feel held to the boundaries decided at Edinburgh. The participants were fully aware of the limitations that these agreements held, and they recognized that they were not ultimate solutions to very real problems. |
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There does not appear to be a definition outside of talking about Karl Marx and his authorship.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and the Communist Manifesto
Karl Marx was born May 5, 1818 in Trier, Germany. His family was Jewish, but the year before Marx was born, his father in reality a Deist, made an expedient decision and converted to Lutheranism. Marx’s father had read widely from the literature of the Enlightenment – from Voltaire to Kant. He wanted his son to share his interest in this type of thinking. Karl Marx took to the Enlightenment with enthusiasm.
In his late teens, Marx began to study for a law degree at the University of Bonn. From there he transferred to the University of Berlin where he came under the influence of Hegel. He joined with a number of other “young” Hegelians and argued the fine points of Hegelian philosophy wherever he went. Ultimately, he embraced the anti-religious views of many Enlightenment thinkers, abandoned his pursuit of law, and decided instead to enter into the philosophical arena.
Upon completion of his college education, he took a job at the Rhinische Zeitung in Cologne, and in a short time became editor of this newspaper. He was fired when he wrote that Russia stood against the Enlightenment. As a result, he moved to Paris. While in Paris from 1843-1845 he came into contact with a large group of radical reformists and social theorists. It was here that he met Friedrich Engels, the son of an English textile manufacturer who was upset over the working conditions of his father’s employees.
Ultimately, Marx was asked to leave France, and he made his way to Brussels, Belgium where in 1848, he wrote The Communist Manifesto. The following year, Marx was again asked to move on, and he made his way to London where he lived the rest of his life. In 1852 he began what he hoped would be a multi-volume work titled Das Kapital. He did not finish it until 1867, and the first volume is all that he published during his lifetime. His friend, Friedrich Engels would ultimately edit and publish the last two volumes, completing the work only in 1894.
In 1863, Marx, and his friend Friedrich Engels created an organization of workers, radicals, non-conformists, and this International Workingmen’s Association that was committed to the expansion of socialism, would develop after Marx’s death. Engels continued the work of Marx following his death, and may be said to have popularized Marx’s social and socialist philosophy.
Marx’s vision can be described as “evolutionary,” with the struggle being the means by which progress is made. It is not difficult to see the hand of Hegel in this mix, for social conflict, the thesis and antithesis, lie at the core of the entire historical process. In the end, a new synthesis develops, and the stage is set for continuing, evolving struggle. |
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an agreement with the papacy that would guarantee both the needs of the Vatican and the desires of the government. In 1804, Napoleon took the title Emperor, asked Pius VII to preside over the ceremonies. Napoleon then crowned himself in his own coronation service, making it quite clear who was in charge.
several Latin American nations developed concordats, that is, contractual arrangements with the Papal office that granted the Roman Catholic Church a status approaching official “establishment”. These arrangements lasted for a time, but, as Enrique Dussel has observed, “the Church…was then - after 1848 in Colombia, 1852 in Argentina, 1857 in Mexico, 1871 in Guatemala, 1889 in Brazil – downright relegated to being one more institution in civil society.” |
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| Pietism had a significant impact upon many Lutherans during the 18th, 19th, and even the 20th Century throughout Europe. The Lutheran Church in Norway adopted conventicles, that is, special meetings or assemblies that made space for lay preaching to take place, allowed lay people to organize what were essentially parachurch missionary organizations, even allowed for a spirit of anti-clericalism to play a significant role in church life. It has even been argued that this Haugean form of Pietism bore positive results that were unique to the Norwegian context, results that were not shared by the Swedish or Danish church. In this way, it appears, Norway was touched less deeply by the presence of secularism than were its Swedish and Danish counterparts.[1] |
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| historically contended that it was founded through the work of Saint Mark, the likely author of the Gospel that bears his name. In 16th Century, however, was subject to the rule of the Turkish government for 300 years. Because of the Islamic commitments of the Ottomans, Egyptian Christians, like their Greek counterparts in Constantinople, were singled out for extra taxation. By the 17th Century, the discrimination against the Copts had reached unprecedented proportions. All Copts were required to pay two taxes. One of them was paid to the mosque or to the local sheik, while the Sultan collected the other. (Pg. 52 for more info.) |
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Written by Immanuel Kant, he argued that objective reality is known only insofar as it conforms to the essential structure of the knowing mind. This structure has approximately a dozen components, among them, the structures of time and space. He claimed that what is knowable is only what can be experienced. It is limited to tangible phenomena. That which lies beyond experience, that which is intangible, is rationally unknowable. Thus, concepts such as the reality of God, eternity, immortality, and the existence of the soul, are all ultimately unknowable. It is impossible, therefore, to prove the existence of God.
He made it clear that morality requires belief in the existence of such unknowable things as God. In this and subsequent works, then, Kant helped to foster the German philosophical school of “idealism.” |
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| Cuius regio, eius religio |
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| Europe, 17th cent. Reformation compromise. Literally, “Whose rule, his religion”; the compromise of each prince to declare the religion of his province. |
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| Christian missionaries/Saints to the Slavs who are credited with bringing Orthodox Christianity to eastern Europe. |
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| English scientist, who upon his exploratory venture to the Galapagos Islands, formed his theory on natural selection. This would lead to his most notable work The Origin of Species. While not his intention, his ideas called into question the ideas of scripture, and developed in the hands of other philosophers into “social darwinism” |
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| process whereby human beings are able to enter fully into the life of God is called theosis or “deification.” While it is the work of Jesus Christ that makes that restoration possible, it is the Holy Spirit who applies the process of deification to the human life.(becoming God like, is the restoration of God through the work of the Holy Spirit.) |
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| This process of release came to be known as the demythologization of Scripture. For example, the Word of God needs to be released from the concretions of the church’s own creation. |
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| Kant applied the term to the criticism of the contradictions that arise from supposing knowledge of objects beyond the limits of experience, e.g., the soul. Hegel applied the term to the process of thought by which apparent contradictions (which he termed thesis and antithesis) are seen to be part of a higher truth (synthesis). |
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| Concept developed by Wellhausen that taught the Pentateuch was not merely the work of a single author (Moses), but a developing work written by a series of authors (JEPD – Jahwist, Elohimist, Priestly, and Deuteronomist) ultimately brought together by a redactor or series of redactors. |
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| The Franciscans made the first attempts to colonize this southwest of the US in 1581. With the arrival of Don Juan de Oñate, the first church was established in San Juan de Los Caballeros [New Mexico] on August 23, 1598. |
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The portrayal of the double-headed eagle may be seen on the flag and banners of the Ecumenical Patriarchate as well as in a bronze relief plaque at the Phanar, the home and office of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey). It stems from the time of the ancient Byzantine Empire (Generally understood as running from the 4th through the early 15th Century). By one reading, the head on the left symbolizes Rome, while the head on the right symbolizes Constantinople, the two imperial cities of the Empire. By another reading the head on the left symbolizes the Ecumenical Patriarch, while the head on the right symbolizes the Emperor. In both cases, the figure symbolizes the close relationship between Church and State.
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| an English and later (from 1707) British joint-stock company formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies but which ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent. Antagonist to missionary activity. |
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| Eastern Orthodox Churches |
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| Also called the Orthodox Catholic Church, it is the second largest Christian denomination in the world with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia,Serbia, and Ukraine, all of which are majority Eastern Orthodox. The Orthodox Church traces its development back through the Byzantine or Roman empire, to the earliest church established by St. Paul and the Apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original ancient traditions, believing in growth without change. In non-doctrinal matters the church had occasionally shared from local Greek, Slavic and Middle Eastern traditions, among others, in turn shaping the cultural development of these nations. The goal of Orthodox Christians from baptism is to continually draw themselves nearer to God throughout their lives. This process is called theosis, or deification, and is a spiritual pilgrimage in which each person strives to both become more holy and more "Christ Like" within Jesus Christ. (These are the churches that agreed with the Chalcedonian Christological definition that Jesus Christ was both man (born out of the Virgin Mary, theotokos) and God (one substance with the Father, sinless, touching the Godhead) in one body.) |
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| sometimes confused as Orthodox churches or called Greek Catholic churches, especially in the older literature, but recently have been called “Uniate Churches”. Congregations made up largely of former Orthodox believers, who number about 17,000,000 members. Today they find themselves in a disputed middle ground. The term “Uniate” is a negative term, generally used by the Orthodox to describe these believers in a manner to Rome’s use of the word “Sect”. The reason their existence is disputed is that they are present on what the Russian Orthodox Church considers its canonical territory, that is, territory that has a history of the wedding of Church and State. The Russian Orthodox Church, for instance, looks at these churches which lie within their historic territory as interlopers through which the Roman Catholic Church has violated the canonical territory that the Russian Orthodox Church views as its own. These churches currently provide a major division point between Catholics and the Orthodox. Eastern Rite Catholics are in full communion with the Roman Catholic Church because they accepted four points that played a role in the division in 1054: (1) The supremacy of the Bishop of Rome; (2) the legitimacy of the Filioque clause in the Creed; (3) the doctrine of purgatory and; (4) the doctrine of transubstantiation in the Eucharist. |
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| Also known as, the Archbishop of Constantinople or Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, ranking first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Recognized as the spiritual Greek minority leader in Turkey. |
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| Edinburgh Missionary Conference 1910 |
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Several hundred church leaders and missionaries gathered to discuss the future of missions and the best ways to coordinate missionary efforts. Nearly all participants were representatives of the historic mainline Protestant and Anglican churches and their missionaries. Furthermore, the delegates were dominantly affiliated with North American, British and European churches and missionary agencies though with Asian missionary input coming particularly from China and India and from the Anglophone countries of Africa. Notably absent from the conversation were any representatives from the Roman Catholic Church or the Orthodox churches.
Neither Latin America, which was dominantly Catholic and had been excluded from discussion because it was viewed as a “Christian” region, nor Russia, which was Orthodox and was viewed similarly, were represented, nor were they formally discussed, though some delegates did express concern that the absence of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches might be significant for the successful implementation of Conference findings. As a result, the Conference was limited by the realities of the East/West split of the 11th Century and by the split between Catholic and Protestant/Anglican churches at the time of the Reformation. In fact, the absence of any substantial voice from either Latin America or Russia was reflective of these realities. It was not an unwitting omission on the part of Conference planners. In the same way, there was no reference to the challenges that Pentecostals were already beginning to pose on the mission field, since the movement was so new and so small. |
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| Pastor who was deeply touched by the findings of the “Enlightenment”. he saw the laws of nature as derived from God and demonstrating his wisdom and care. Hence, scientific discoveries did not threaten his faith, and for him there was no inherent conflict between the spiritual and material. Edwards, an ardent Calvinist, struggled to integrate the findings of the Enlightenment thinkers and the theology of John Calvin. He went so far as to appeal to Newton and Locke as apologists for Calvin. He developed a synthesis that did not compromise his commitment to personal renewal or revival, while at the same time it challenged his readers and hearers to think seriously about the nature of their faith. |
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| Written by Kierkegaard, explores the aesthetic and ethical "phases" or "stages" of existence. The book's central concern is the primal question asked by Aristotle, "How should we live?" |
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| The battle to free those already in conditions of slavery. Their work began only after the issue of the slave trade had been settled. Abolitionism and Emancipation, the two wings of the anti-slavery movement, combined forces and, by 1827, they constituted a single Abolitionist Movement. |
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| (820-1895) German-English. Father of Marxist theory; Co-authored A Communist Manifesto with Marx (Wikipedia). Marxism influenced liberation theologies, particularly among radical Catholics in Latin America 1960s-1980s (Jenkins, 165-167) |
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| (1745-1797), a man who was taken from his home in Nigeria, and sold into slavery in the Caribbean. His fortune was in the fact that a Quaker, who ultimately set him free, was the person who bought him. Equiano’s descriptions of the slave trade are graphic, and they served to raise public consciousness on the issue. His story became a favorite of the Abolitionists, and was widely circulated in the United States and in England. |
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| based on the teaching on papal infallibility, the Roman Pontiff (aka Pope), when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when in the discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians, by virtue of his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, is possessed of that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer willed that His Church should be endowed for defining doctrine regarding faith or morals: and that therefore such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church (from lecture notes)wiki definition: “from the chair”; connected to papal infallibility. Refers to the when the Bishop of Rome defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals for the whole Church (wikipedia). |
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| Within the Orthodox Tradition, Trinitarian theology is extremely important. Each Person of the Trinity plays a unique role. The Father is the One Unbegotten. The Son is the One Begotten. And the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father. This latter is an extremely important distinction that differs from the West, in which the Holy Spirit is said to proceed from the Father and the Son. The inclusion of the phrase “and the son” in known as the filioque clause. It was not approved by any of the seven Ecumenical Councils, but was added unilaterally by the Western Church. From the Orthodox perspective, this is a major point of contention with the western churches. |
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-one of the main leaders of the Second Great Awakening.
-promoted frontier revivals, promoted personal salvation, an emotional and active Christianity and his movement “pushed religion into the vernacular.” personal salvation and “active Christianity.” According to political scientist James Morone, the movement “pushed religion into the vernacular.”
-eventually led Oberlin College as a social reformer.
-also impacted abolition movement and temperance reform.
The “New School” Presbyterians supported Charles G. Finney and the frontier revivalism of the Second Great Awakening,
-the “Old School”, opposed to such things.
-The division over the slavery issue led to a further split among the New and Old Schools |
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| Last area of the Americas to be “Europeanized” - the Pacific Northwest. By the early 19th Century, Russian lumbermen and fur trappers, made their way down the Pacific coast of Canada, then southward to establish a settlement north of San Francisco. It became known as Fort Ross. The Russian town of Fort Ross and Spanish town of Sonoma were not all that far apart, and they held the potential for armed conflict. By 1812, the Pacific Coast had been explored, inhabited by Europeans, and had received either a Catholic or an Orthodox witness to the Gospel. Fort Ross was ultimately sold by the Russians in 1846 to John Sutter, leaving the west coast to the Spanish and the Americans. |
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| The early 18th Century Pietist, non-Roman Catholic, European missionary who set out to proclaim the Gospel to an indigenous population that occupied regions without a Protestant witness. Convinced of the need for foreign missionaries, the Lutheran King Frederick IV of Denmark turned to the Francke (1663-1727) for help in recruiting missionaries for India, and Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plütschau came, also. Their beliefs: 1. “Church and school are to go together. Christians must be able to read the Word of God, and therefore all Christian children must be educated.” 2. “If Christians are to read the Word of God, that word must be available to them in their own language.” 3. “The preaching of the Gospel must be based on an accurate knowledge of the mind of the people.” 4. “The aim must be definite and personal conversion.” 5. “At as early a date as possible an Indian Church, with its own Indian ministry, must come into being.” |
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| In 1822, Richard Furman, a Baptist pastor from Charleston, South Carolina argued that slavery was a “positive good” for the society as a whole. He warned slaves that they had to be obedient to their masters. If they were not obedient, they “could neither be the faithful servants of God, nor be held as regular members of the Christian Church.” |
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| Evangelicals were at the forefront of the Anti-slavery movement. William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879) was a veteran journalist by the time he met Benjamin Lundy. Lundy, a Quaker, changed Garrison’s mind on the slavery issue, and with Lundy, published a paper in which they spoke out against it. In 1829, Garrison gave his first anti-slavery address in Boston’s Park Street Church. [Side note: Fuller Seminary’s first President, Dr. Harold John Ockenga, was the pastor of this church when Fuller was founded in 1947.] From January 1, 1831 until December 31, 1865, Garrison edited the Liberator magazine. Garrison demanded the immediate release of all slaves and the end to slavery. His ways were aggressive, his language picturesque. His magazine enabled anti-slavery advocates to communicate and to organize anti-slavery societies. Many of these societies soon sprang up in New England. |
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| Under the Islamic leaders of the Ottoman Empire, Christianity suffered greatly, and when Constantinople was first conquered in the mid-15th Century, this famed cathedral was taken, but Christians were allowed to worship in other places. |
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| In 19th Century Norway, for instance, Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824) led a deeply moving revival that was rooted in Pietism. Literally thousands of people had their lives transformed as a result. But it also affected the life of the larger Lutheran community because these people stayed within the Church instead of leaving it. |
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| One of the earliest and most successful missionary agencies developed in the United States came as the result of work done by Samuel J. Mills (1783-1818). During the Second Great Awakening, Mills was a student at Williams College, a small, Congregationalist school in Western Massachusetts. While he was there, he met with other students who shared a common vision for God’s work, and developed a commitment to foreign missionary work. During the summer of 1808, a number of them were caught in the middle of a field during a thunderstorm. They sought refuge near a haystack, where they prayed together, promising God and one another that they would take the Gospel to foreign lands. This event became known as the “Haystack Revival”. Upon completion of their work at Williams College, several of them enrolled at Andover Theological School. They made it clear to the Congregationalists that upon completion of their studies they wanted to go as missionaries to foreign lands. |
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| Hegel, George Wilhelm Friedrich |
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Born in Germany in 1770, G.W.F. Hegel was very much taken with the Kant’s arguments. Between 1788 and 1793 he studied theology in Tübigen. He became an “idealist” according to the Kantian school of thought. In a sense, the idealists of Germany such as Hegel was, drew upon the work of Plato that distinguished between the real and the ideal. They attempted to account for all objects in nature and in experience, as being in some way representations of the mind. Sometimes they assigned them a meaning that was a representation of a higher order of existence.
If you have position A and B, they come together to a new thing as a synthesis. We look at that in terms of political compromise. If we look at history, there are many cases where this happens. But Hegel says that one must do this in a very logical way.
E.g. something comes democratic, republic, they'll go to house to compromise it. Among the more famous works of Hegel are his Phenomenology of Mind [or Spirit], published in 1807.
In 1816 he released his Science of Logic as he began work on the faculty of the University of Heidelberg. In 1818 he moved on to the University of Berlin where he published his Encyclopedia of Philosophical Science. Expanding on this work, he produced a Philosophy of Nature and a Philosophy of Spirit, ultimately producing a work on political philosophy in 1821 titled Elements of the Philosophy of Right.
A distinctive of Hegel’s philosophical work became known as the Hegelian Dialectic. He showed that the interaction between various realities inevitably led to new realities. A particular thesis meets a particular antithesis, and from the meeting of these two realities, a synthesis can be derived. Much of Hegel’s work could be applied to conflict in culture as well as in politics. Ultimately, Karl Marx drew deeply from Hegel to form his own understanding of reality and relationships in society. The significant difference Hegel and Marx was Marx’s substitution of materialism for the concept of idealism. |
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(September 26, 1889-May 26, 1976). Heidegger has often been noted as one of the most influential German philosophers of the 20th Century.Martin Heidegger's work on Being and Time was arguably the most important book of his career in that it involved his personal quest for authenticity. He was concerned with what he saw as the dehumanization of individuals during World War I Europe, and in the subsequent moves toward secularization in European culture.
He was very influential to major theologians in the 20th century in Germany particularly Bultmann. He asks the question "How do we know God?" and "how are we thinking about ourselves". He said that we cannot ask about our being without understanding that we are in relationship to other people. |
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| While Europe was colonizing the other portions of the Americas, Russia would send Father Hermon. On October 1793, he led a group of Russian missionary monks, eastward, evangelizing. He served the poor and the orphans of the area, and led many Alaskans into the Orthodox faith. |
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principal of Princeton Theological Seminary.
-supported slavery in an abstract sense, held slaves himself, but was against mistreatment of slavery (e.g., Southern Slave Laws)
-led the Old School Presbyterians against the New School over doctrine, religious practice, and slavery.
In 1830, neither the general public nor the Church was united on the subject of slavery and abolitionism. Except for the Quakers, most church leaders were not sure that abolition was a good thing. A few ministers, such as Charles Hodge and Horace Bushnell, spoke against slavery but chose not to get involved with any active role. |
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| As early as 1770, Samuel Hopkins, a prominent Congregational pastor from Newport, Rhode Island, envisioned a plan that combined missionary work with colonization efforts. He argued that Free Blacks (those who had never been slaves) especially, should be recruited, educated, and returned to Africa. Two Black men were accepted to begin training. One, Bristol Yama, was a slave. The other John Quamine, was a free man. Both of them began study at Princeton University in the field of theology. Only the onset of the Revolutionary War, followed by the death of Hopkins in 1803 put an end to this plan. |
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| Aka eikons, pictorial representations of an event that features God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, and/or the saints. The Orthodox, like Protestants, tend not to have statues in their churches because of the association of statues with “graven images” against which the Old Testament spoke. They do not see icons as objects of worship but ad openings into the eternal that bring one into contact with the person depicted in the picture, and hence, play a mediatorial role. |
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an altar screen of icons and religious paintings which,
in an Orthodox church, separates the Sanctuary from
the nave. The Sanctuary is where the Eucharist is
celebrated, which symbolizes the Divine world. It is
separated from the nave which is the part reserved for
the believers and symbolizes the human world. It can be
seen as a doorway into the eternal. The faithful sit or stand
in the nave, while the priest enters the door into the heavenly.
There the priest faces away from the people, offering the
mystery for the people. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition
only men can enter the altar portion behind the iconostasis.
[image] |
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| In 1854, Pope Pius IX declared that the Virgin Mary had been the object of the Immaculate Conception. This teaching, given in the Apostolic Constitution on the Immaculate Conception, Ineffabilis Deus, stated that Mary’s conception transpired “by a singular privilege and grace granted by God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race,” thereby ensuring that she “was preserved exempt from all stain of original sin.” It would be another century (1950) before Pope Pius XII would declare the Assumption of Mary, that is, the doctrine in which Mary is assumed into “body and soul into heavenly glory” |
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| a doctrine in RCC which allows the Pope to circumstancially make infallible statements to the church. Infallible is a level of message to the church that is elevated as if Christ were speaking. In the 19th and 20th century, two infallible statements have been used. In 1854, Pope Pius IX declared that the Virgin Mary had been the object of the Immaculate Conception. It would be another century (1950) before Pope Pius XII would declare the Assumption of Mary, that is, the doctrine in which Mary is assumed into “body and soul into heavenly glory”.free |
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aka Constantinople in the olden times. location of the following items: -The portrayal of the double-headed eagle may be seen on the flag and banners of the Ecumenical Patriarchate as well as in a bronze relief plaque at the Phanar, the home and office of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople
-During the latter half of the 20th Century, Christians in the West have probably heard more about the Orthodox Church than they had heard since the founding of the United States of America. There are several obvious reasons for this. First, when the Church centered in Rome and the Church centered in Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) broke relations with one another in AD 1054, they set the stage for differences that have come down to the present day.
-With the rise of Peter the Great (1676-1725) in Russia, a ruler who had strong West European ties Islamic policy toward Christians within the Ottoman Empire received some reprieve. Russia had its eye on Constantinople (Istanbul), and attempted to destabilize the Ottoman Empire by appealing to the large Greek population in Turkey to raise up opposition to the Ottomans. The Ottomans made some concessions in a bid to “Europeanize” Turkey. Western Europe, however, was not sure of Russia’s ultimate intent towards the West. As a result, Western European leaders tended to view and treat the Ottoman Empire as a “buffer” between Russia and the West.
When the Islamic or Ottoman Empire conquered these Orthodox regions, their Muslim leaders at first granted broad yet limited freedoms to their Christian subjects in keeping with the teaching of the Qu’ran. All Christians in Constantinople [now Istanbul, Turkey], for instance, were required to pay an annual head tax, but they were allowed the freedom to practice their faith as they saw fit. The mixture of “Church” and State that typified the Islamic government even allowed the Patriarch of Constantinople to function as a kind of head of State for all Greeks within the territory. Yet, in the end Christians had no real or definable “rights”. They were subject to whatever “mercies” the Sultan desired to mete out. In the end, the Orthodox suffered greatly under Islamic rule.[1] |
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| By February 1812, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions had commissioned five missionaries and sent them to Asia. Among them was the famous Baptist missionary, Adoniram Judson. When he was commissioned and sent, he was a Congregationalist. On the journey to India, however, he converted to the Baptist position. In this way, the Baptists came to participate in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions nearly from the beginning, first in fund raising through the work of Mary Webb, then in sending missionaries of their own. The rise of denominationalism within the United States, however, ultimately led to the establishment of separately governed missionary agencies, owned and operated by each of these denominations. Ultimately, then, this ecumenical work was undercut by an increase in “local feeling, party prejudices, [and] sectarian jealousies.” |
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| Early 19th cent. Lay leaders developed local juntas or councils that they governed apart from the clergy, though in most all cases they continued to work together with the clergy. The cooperation of locally led juntas ultimately led to a War for Spanish Independence. |
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| (1724-1804) Immanuel Kant worked almost exclusively in the 18th Century. He began to think about his philosophical position after reading the works of David Hume. He was a committed rationalist who served on the faculty of the University of Königsberg, Germany from 1755 onward. In 1781 Kant wrote the first of several famous works, his Critique of Pure Reason. In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant argued that objective reality is known only insofar as it conforms to the essential structure of the knowing mind. This structure has approximately a dozen components, among them, the structures of time and space. He claimed that what is knowable is only what can be experienced. It is limited to tangible phenomena. That which lies beyond experience, that which is intangible, is rationally unknowable. Thus, concepts such as the reality of God, eternity, immortality, and the existence of the soul, are all ultimately unknowable. It is impossible, therefore, to prove the existence of God. |
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Greek word for preaching, or proclaiming. 'Kerygmatic' is sometimes used to express the message of Jesus' whole ministry, as "a proclamation addressed not to the theoretical reason, but to the hearer as a self" ; as opposed to the didactic use of Scripture that seeks understanding in the light of what is taught. The meaning of the crucifixion is central to this concept.
During the mid-twentieth century, when the literary genre of the NT gospels was under debate, scholars like Bultmann suggested that the gospels were of a genre totally unique in the ancient world. They called this genre kerygma and described it as a later development of preaching, having taken a literary form. Scholarship since that time has problematized Bultmann's theory, but in Biblical and theological discussions, the term kerygma has come to denote the irreducible essence of Christian apostolic preaching.
Bultmann understood the project of "demythologizing the New Testament proclamation" as an evangelical task, clarifying the kerygma, or gospel proclamation, by stripping it of elements of the first-century "mythical world picture" that had potential to alienate modern people from Christian faith. He called on interpreters to replace traditional supernaturalism withHeidegger's temporal and existential categories of Bultmann's colleague, rejecting doctrines such as the pre-existence of Christ.Bultmann believed this endeavor would make accessible to modern audiences - already immersed in science and technology - the reality of Jesus' teachings.
Bultmann criticized any attempt to understand Scripture simply by means of some “objective” method such as historical criticism and historical reality if the text. What was important to him was the existential encounter that the Bible demanded. While the cross was at the heart of his theology, it was viewed not merely as an historical event, but as an existential one. The “kerygma,” that which is proclaimed, therefore, lies independent of the historical reality that may or may not lie behind it. It was the proclamation of the kerygma by the earliest Christian communities regarding the death and resurrection of Jesus as God’s salvific act that made Christian faith possible. And from Bultmann’s perspective, the Apostle Paul was its chief architect. |
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| One of the more interesting facts about the reign of the Mongol Kublai Khan was the fact that until his death in 1294, he served as a protector of Christianity throughout China. From the 7th Century onward, both Christianity and Islam made steady headway in the regions of Asia. With the death of Kublai Khan, however, Christianity was no longer protected in China, and Islam was free to move ahead. |
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| (1813-1855) - Søren Kierkegaard entered theology at a young age, elevated to become bishop, and had a government ministry job. After a tumultuous spiritual life, he wrote a number of important works which called into question the nature of Christian conversion. Like Hegel, he believed that the dialectic was important. It forced one to make a decision on which life he or she would pursue |
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| during the colonialization of Latin America, many clergy were “laicized,” that is, they either left their clerical positions by personal choice, or they were forced out of their clerical positions according to the new governmental demands. |
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| "The Black Code”; a series of laws designed by the French in 1685 for implementation in the Caribbean and Louisiana territory which required that slave owners make their slaves Catholic and baptized within 8 days of arrival. If not, the gov could confiscate the owner’s land. Shows the determination of France to spread Roman |
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| (pg 30 Robeck Notes) Philosopher and Physician, authored 1690 “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” that help major implications for way people did things, the way they thought about God, the universe around them, and themselves. Argued that Knowledge came from experience gained through the senses, not from some set of created, innate ideas. Human mind connected world through senses and learned about the world. |
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| London Missionary Society |
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| Britain would soon be the birthplace of numerous mission agencies. In 1795, the Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists formed the London Missionary Society. It established missions in the South Pacific and in India. |
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| Elijah Lovejoy (1802-1837), pastor of the Upper Alton (Illinois) Presbyterian Church, and publisher of The Observer, a Presbyterian newspaper in which he argued for abolition, was shot and killed November 7, 1837. His death, in the interests of “freedom of speech” tended to congeal support for Abolition in parts of the North. Edward Beecher was sufficiently touched by the incident to call him “the first martyr in America” for the cause of freedom of speech. As the abolitionists spoke, rifts within the churches began to appear. |
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| Contemporary of Finney and Palmer. He was involved in the “Holiness” movement. An abolionist who made his home with Finney at Oberlin College |
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| One of the Oriental Orthodox Churches. They include the Coptic Church of Alexandria [Egyptian Orthodox], the Ethiopian Orthodox [Tewahedo = Unified] Church, the Eritrean Orthodox [Tewahedo] Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and the Syriac [or Syrian or Antiochian] Orthodox Church. |
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| The concept of “Manifest Destiny,” first popularized in 1845 by Jacksonian-Democrats, held significance not only for the nation, but also for the Church. This ideology argued that the Anglo-Saxons who had come to the United States had been given a special vocation in the world. They were to conquer and settle the North American continent (largely through annexation) and spread a Protestant message across that country even as it spread the “liberty” to the region. By the 1890s, when the nation had incorporated virtually all the land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, Republicans cast their eyes longingly on the regions beyond – the islands of the Pacific, and the continent of Asia, and embraced the doctrine of “Manifest Destiny” to justify their colonial interests. |
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| Southern India has a long-held tradition that the Apostle Thomas founded their church when he visited Malabar in the 1st Century. That Christianity came from Syria to India at a very early date is undisputed. The historic documentation for its apostolic origins, however, is more difficult to produce. The Church today is known as the Mar Thoma Church. |
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Karl Marx was born May 5, 1818 in Trier, Germany. His family was Jewish, but the year before Marx was born, his father in reality a Deist, made an expedient decision and converted to Lutheranism. Marx’s father had read widely from the literature of the Enlightenment – from Voltaire to Kant. He wanted his son to share his interest in this type of thinking. Karl Marx took to the Enlightenment with enthusiasm.
In his late teens, Marx began to study for a law degree at the University of Bonn. From there he transferred to the University of Berlin where he came under the influence of Hegel. He joined with a number of other “young” Hegelians and argued the fine points of Hegelian philosophy wherever he went. Ultimately, he embraced the anti-religious views of many Enlightenment thinkers, abandoned his pursuit of law, and decided instead to enter into the philosophical arena.
Upon completion of his college education, he took a job at the Rhinische Zeitung in Cologne, and in a short time became editor of this newspaper. He was fired when he wrote that Russia stood against the Enlightenment. As a result, he moved to Paris. While in Paris from 1843-1845 he came into contact with a large group of radical reformists and social theorists. It was here that he met Friedrich Engels, the son of an English textile manufacturer who was upset over the working conditions of his father’s employees.
Ultimately, Marx was asked to leave France, and he made his way to Brussels, Belgium where in 1848, he wrote The Communist Manifesto. The following year, Marx was again asked to move on, and he made his way to London where he lived the rest of his life. In 1852 he began what he hoped would be a multi-volume work titled Das Kapital. He did not finish it until 1867, and the first volume is all that he published during his lifetime. His friend, Friedrich Engels would ultimately edit and publish the last two volumes, completing the work only in 1894.
In 1863, Marx, and his friend Friedrich Engels created an organization of workers, radicals, non-conformists, and this International Workingmen’s Association that was committed to the expansion of socialism, would develop after Marx’s death. Engels continued the work of Marx following his death, and may be said to have popularized Marx’s social and socialist philosophy.
Marx’s vision can be described as “evolutionary,” with the struggle being the means by which progress is made. It is not difficult to see the hand of Hegel in this mix for social conflict, the thesis and antithesis, lie at the core of the entire historical process. In the end, a new synthesis develops, and the stage is set for continuing, evolving struggle. |
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| (p. 36, D-2) A new England pastor who gained fame through the witchcraft hysteria of Salem, Massachusetts, and through his book Memorable Provides Relation to Witchcraft (Published 1689). Was a scientist-theologian who in 1721, inoculated the residents of Boston against smallpox. He defended his scientific breakthrough against those who viewed the smallpox epidemic in Boston as God’s retribution for their sins. He viewed the scientific breakthroughs as nothing less than generous, life-saving gifts bestowed upon humankind from the hand of a benevolent God. |
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| in contrast to the emotional excesses that Jonathan Edwards advocated we must place people like Charles Chauncy and Jonathan Mayhew. The First Great Awakening as it was manifested in New England during this period of “Enlightenment,” included a fair amount of emotional excess. In reaction against what they viewed as these emotional excesses, Chauncy, and Mayhew, fully embraced the “Enlightenment”. They used it as a tool by which to exalt human reason and to demean the emotional side of religious experience. Their resulting theology increasingly led them to a “rational” faith, and in 1819, it led them to found Unitarianism. |
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| MEL SAID THIS IS ON THE EXAM. One of the earliest and most successful missionary agencies developed in the United States came as the result of work done by Mills (1783-1818). During the Second Great Awakening, Mills was a student at Williams College, a small, Congregationalist school in Western Massachusetts. While there, he met with students who shared a common vision for God’s work, and developed a commitment to foreign missionary work. During the summer of 1808, a number of them were caught in the middle of a field during a thunderstorm. They sought refuge near a haystack, where they prayed together, promising God and one another that they would take the Gospel to foreign lands. This event became known as the “Haystack Revival”. Upon completion of their work at Williams College, several of them enrolled at Andover Theological School. They made it clear to the Congregationalists that upon completion of their studies they wanted to go as missionaries to foreign lands. |
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Molokans (Russian for "milk-drinkers": молокане) are sectarian Christians who evolved from "Spiritual Christian" Russian peasants that refused to obey the Russian Orthodox Church, beginning in the 17th century. because they could no longer accept the Russian Orthodox Church, nor the Protestant sects or the Catholic Church.
New groups, such as Judaizers, Molokans, and the like, began to emerge in the mid 17th century. The schism that resulted from the heavy handed tactics of Patriarch Nikon only provided fodder to those who were looking for excuses to exercise freedom from the Church and the Tsar who was viewed, in many ways, as divinely appointed over the church. The contact with Protestants who had come eastward from the Reformation gave impetus to further schism. (p. 36ish). |
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| This theory posited that the two natures of Christ (Divine and Human) were so fused in the process of the incarnation, that they could not be distinguished. In this Christological theory, the two natures become one in which the human nature is subsumed under the divine nature. An issue at Chalcedon was how to describe the nature of Jesus Christ, and churches that became known as Oriental Orthodox Churches had been influenced by the monophysite theory. Those that did not accept the “Chalcedonian Definition” and which accept as binding only the decisions of the first three ecumenical Councils are known as pre-Chalcedonian churches and fall under the rubric of Oriental Orthodox Churches. |
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| non-governmental organizations- concerning about the uprooting of the people |
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| Brunner's 1934 book which conflicted with Karl Barth. Barth addressed his response to Brunner in an essay titled with a single word, "Nein!" The reason was simple. While Barth had rejected the possibility of natural revelation, Brunner embraced it. It was in this debate that Barth believed that Brunner had not adequately distanced himself from the liberals of the past. |
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| Nestorianism represented a brand of Orthodoxy that held to the teachings of Nestorius regarding the incarnation. |
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| Nestorius argued that in Jesus Christ, a divine person (the Logos), and a human person were joined in perfect harmony of action. Their unity was limited to their action, and not to their person. In short, Jesus was not fully human and fully divine but was thought to function like two spirits occupying a single body. The Council of Ephesus held in AD 431, condemned this teaching as heretical. This condemnation was reaffirmed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. In spite of this action, many Christians in what is now known as the Middle East continued to hold to this or related positions regarding the incarnation. |
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| was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian. His work illustrates that enlightenment was able to change way human beings thought about the world around them. In his most significant work Principia Mathmetica (1687) he made it clear that the universe is not as mysterious as it once appeared. The universe will give up its secrets if it were studied and understood according to predetermined laws. God seemed to work within certain laws of the universe and among people in predictable ways. |
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| Patriarch of Moscow from 1652 until his death in 1681, attempted a revision of all the source or service books that the Orthodox held. He convened meetings on the revisions between 1652 and 1654 in which he authorized significant changes not only to the services books, but also to church architecture and to the development of iconography. His methods were heavy handed and he succeeded in alienating the Czar of Russia. As a result, in 1666, Nikon was relieved of his patriarchate and forcibly returned to monastic life. Instead of bringing unity to the Orthodox Church as he had hoped to do, he succeeded in producing a schism known as the “Schism of the Old Believers”. |
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| Oberlin became Weld’s new home. It also became the home of Charles G. Finney and Asa Mahan. When Oberlin College decided to admit Blacks [and women] as equals, it became the nation’s leading center of anti-slavery teaching. Arthur Tappan quickly dropped his support of Lane Theological Seminary and transferred it to Oberlin College. |
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| Leading figure in the 20th century of Am. evangelism. He was part of the reform movement: “Neo Evangelism movement.” Fuller Seminary’s first President, when Fuller was founded in 1947. Dr. Harold John Ockenga, was the pastor of Park Street Church, where abolitionist activities were taken place. |
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| Oikos=house, contributes to the word “ecumenics”; one household of believers. |
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| 1839-1842. In their quest for the prizes of Asia, they imported opium into China, in clear violation of Chinese imperial law. When the Chinese confronted them, the British engaged China in a war in order to ensure that their lucrative drug trade would continue. In the end, the war was settled with the Treaty of Nanking. It not only ended the war, it provided the British with full access to Hong Kong, gave them several additional ports in which to trade, and gave freedom for Christian missionaries, especially Anglican and Protestant missionaries, to enter China once again, with privileges that not even Chinese citizens enjoyed. |
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| Oriental Orthodox Churches |
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| influenced by the monophysite theory (two natures of Christ, Divine and Human, were so fused in the process of the incarnation, that they could not be distinguished.) In this Christological theory, the two natures become one in which the human nature is subsumed under the divine nature. Those that did not accept the “Chalcedonian Definition” and which accept as binding only the decisions of the first three ecumenical Councils are known as pre-Chalcedonian churches and fall under this rubric. |
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| Darwin's best known book. first published in 1859. It would undergo six editions through 1872. |
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| Methodism and particularly some parts of the Methodist family took the call to holiness and perfectionism to greater lengths than did others. Among those individuals who did so was a woman from New Jersey named Phoebe Palmer (1807-1874). Phoebe’s father, Henry Worrall, sought every opportunity to follow Wesley’s lead, and ultimately he received membership in Wesley’s group. Phoebe’s roots ran deeply in Methodism. In 1819, she had enjoyed her own conversion experience, and as a teenager she read John Wesley’s A Plain Account of Christian Perfection. It affected her until 1837 when she came to believe that she had received “entire sanctification.” From 1838 onward, Phoebe entered into ministry, first by establishing a Bible class, then by moving relentlessly into the field of Christian publication. In 1842, she published The Way of Holiness, which ultimately sold over 100,000 copies. She became close friends with Charles G. Finney and his close associate Asa Mahan, and began to move within “holiness” circles within the United States. Through the years she would publish other works including Faith and Its Effects and Promise of the Father. In 1859, she traveled to Britain where she ministered for the next four years. She traveled throughout England and Scotland holding meetings where she was invited to do so. She was not particularly impressed with English spirituality, and spoke often of the need for greater holiness and accountability. Two things stand out about her ministry in England. First, she was a “holiness” woman who labored in a world dominated by Anglican men. Second, she ministered in camp meetings throughout the region that held great similarities to the camp meetings in which she would minister in the United States for the remainder of her life. What all of this suggests, is that she is only one example of the interrelationship that continued to develop between English and American Christians. |
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the enthroned Christ that generally adorns the domes atop most Eastern Orthodox churches. The term Pantocrator means “almighty” or “sustainer of all” based on a translation of the Hebrew, El Shaddai. In this representation, Christ holds a copy of the Gospels with his left hand, while his right hand is raised with the index and third fingers are extended while the thumb touches the two smaller fingers. The extended fingers symbolize His two natures – divine and human. The other three fingers denote the Trinity or Christ’s divinity.
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| s early as 1857, he established an annual conference called the Mildmay Conference. Its stated objective was to “promote personal holiness, brotherly love, and increased interest in the work of the Lord.” By 1870, it ran 2500 attendees. |
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(1676-1725) in Russia, a ruler who had strong West European ties Islamic policy toward Christians within the Ottoman Empire received some reprieve.
G. With the entry of Peter the Great (1676-1725) upon the political scene, much of the unrest was overtaken. While liturgical changes would not be forthcoming, dramatic changes detailing the relationship between Church and State were. In his concern to see that his own authority was secure, Peter the Great also made a place for his authority over the Church. In 1721, he suppressed the Patriarchal Office in Moscow, and established an administrative Synod. His control rested in the fact that he nominated all delegates, and he had the right to dismiss them as he felt the need. |
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German Lutheran religious movement of the 17th and 18th centuries, pietism emphasized heartfelt religious devotion, ethical purity, charitable activity, and pastoral theology rather than sacramental or dogmatic precision. The term now refers to all religious expressions that emphasize inward devotion and moral purity. A way of coming to terms with the growth of the challenges that the modern philosophical and scientific communities were sending to the Church was pietism which looked for renewal and revival. Leaders emphasized having authentic dramatic experiences with God. Prominent leaders were Philip Jacob Spener, August Hermann Francke, John Wesley
Pietism had a significant impact upon many Lutherans during the 18th, 19th, and even the 20th Century throughout Europe. Literally thousands of people had their lives transformed as a result. But it also affected the life of the larger Lutheran community because these people stayed within the Church instead of leaving it. The Lutheran Church in Norway adopted conventicles, that is, special meetings or assemblies that made space for lay preaching to take place, allowed lay people to organize what were essentially parachurch missionary organizations, even allowed for a spirit of anti-clericalism to play a significant role in church life.
Critics of Pietists movement said that it allwoed laymen criticize clergy. |
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| In 1783, William Pitt, the British Prime Minister estimated that 80% of all external income reaching Britain at that time was a direct result of the slaves. |
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| The Pope banned Portugal and Spain to trade slaves. |
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| 1054, Pope Leo IX excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Patriarch returned the favor by anathematizing (damning or condemning) the Pope. The break was complete in 1081 when Constantinople fell. |
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| Sir Issac Newton’s humanism-inspired and most significant work; attempted to build a holistic view of the universe, and viewed the cosmos as a law abiding mechanism, and these laws could be discovered and explained by logic and reason. |
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| One of the two black men (the free man) recruited for training at Princeton University, under the plan of Samuel Hopkins for recruiting free Blacks to be educated and returned to Africa for missionary work+colonization efforts. With the onset of the Revolutionary War and the death of Hopkins in 1803, this plan ended. |
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In 1704, the “Rites Controversy” erupted when the Dominicans and Franciscans who followed the Jesuits to China, publicly criticized the Jesuits for being too friendly with the indigenous realities they faced in China and resulting in the charge of syncretism. While the Enlightenment had helped to make possible a Jesuit form of Christianity in China, disagreements over the contextual limits of that Christian doctrinal were still a focal point of debate even within the Roman Catholic Church. China’s lack of patience with the intra-Christian debate led to the expulsion of many Western ideas for a century. Thus, the Enlightenment that played such a formative role in Post-Reformation Europe largely bypassed the East.
The Chinese Rites controversy was a dispute within the Catholic Church from the 1630s to the early 18th century[1] about whether Chinese folk religion rites and offerings to the emperor constituted idolatry. Pope Clement XI decided in favor of the Dominicans (who argued that Chinese folk religion and offerings to the emperor were incompatible with Catholicism), which greatly reduced Catholic missionary activity in China.
It was related to larger controversies between the Dominicans and Jesuits over the adoption of local practices of other countries, such as the ascetic brahminpractices of India |
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| (1822-1889) who drew upon Immanuel Kant’s teaching about knowledge. He also drew heavily upon two biblical ideas; one was the Church, and the other was the Kingdom of God. For Ritschl, these two realities were interdependent upon one another. By stressing the moral and ethical life, he led many younger Christians to a highly optimistic position that ultimately contributed to the rise of the “Social Gospel”. |
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| 18th cent. Enlightenment philosopher. In his Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité, published in 1755, he condemned slavery on the grounds that it required force to implement it, something thought to be unnecessary in this “Age of Reason.” He would continue his philosophical attacks on slavery for nearly a decade. |
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| Rublev was considered one of the foremost icon painters of the later medieval period. painted the icon that is sometimes titled The Old Testament Trinity, cf. Genesis 18:1-8; Colossians 1:15. |
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| Schleiermacher, Friedrich |
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(1768-1834) Schleiermacher’s work as a theologian attracted a huge following, and those who followed his teachings in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries looked upon him as providing a new form of liberalism to the Christian faith.
Someone said that his theology is summed as: The function of theology is to explore and expound the implications of that feeling of dependence at three levels: the self, its relations with the world, and its relations with God. Anything that cannot be shown to be related to the feeling of dependence has no place in theology. |
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| an African American Pentecostal pastor, who came from a family of slaves |
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| During the latter half of the 19th Century, there were two views of sanctification that emerged among those churches that were part of the Wesleyan-Holiness tradition. The view of sanctification that was championed by Charles G. Finney, Asa Mahan, and others at Oberlin College was one in which sanctification came about more or less gradually. The second view was that sanctification took place instantaneously, through a second work of grace that removed the sin nature, enabling one to lead a life of sinless perfection. Most Wesleyan-Holiness churches adopted this “crisis” view of sanctification as part of their doctrinal position. With this discussion came the question of how sanctification was related to baptism in the Spirit. In some cases, this led to a mixing of terms, in which many used the phrase “baptism in the Spirit” synonymously with sanctification. There were, however, those who argued for the separation of these two terms. The result was the emergence of two experiences. Those who viewed these concepts separately viewed sanctification in terms of purification and cleansing, and “Baptism in the Spirit” in terms of empowerment. |
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| This Pietist leader (also known as the father of Pietism) addressed concerns to pastors and leaders of churches. Felt it was not adequate to have a simple understanding of the Bible or of theology-we need faith grounded in experience of Jesus Christ. Was not anti-intellectual, but his priorities were different from many scholars; emphasis on personal holiness of the individual who would ultimately seek ordination. Critics of Pietism accused him of breaking down the distinction between clergy and laity, and allowing laity to confront clergy on the level of personal spirituality. In addition, Spener (and Francke) were accused of confusing the person who was to be ordained, with the office to which that person was being ordained. 1675 he published Pia Desideria. Spener’s 4 main beliefs: (1) Christians needed to be able to witness to having had an experience of personal conversion; (2) Christians needed to live a life of holiness; (3) Christians needed to seek one another out, especially in community, for purposes of Christian fellowship; and (4) Christians needed to take responsibility for passing on the Gospel message to others. Spener also taught that Christians should expect the return of Christ within their own generation and that just before His return, there would be a great outpouring of the Holy Spirit, therefore, Christians must tell others of Christ, in light of His anticipated soon return. |
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| Harriet Beecher Stowe, the daughter of Lyman Beecher, to write Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. It would prove to be a landmark volume that contributed significantly to the national rise of antislavery sentiment. |
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| Literally “symphony”. From Justinian, who established the Church and State working together. The Church was viewed as being responsible for spiritual (moral and ethical) decisions while the king or Czar was understood to be responsible for exercising imperial power over life on earth. Portrayal of double-headed eagle as example of close relationship of Church and State. |
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| Arthur (1786-1865) and Lewis (1788-1873) Tappan, who were close to Garrison and were intimately connected with the ministry of Charles G. Finney, launched such societies in Philadelphia and New York in 1833. Arthur Tappan had made a fortune in dry goods, especially in the import of textiles such as silk. His brother became a partner in the 1820s, and together they used their considerable financial resources to work toward “Immediate Abolition.” One of the societies formed by the Tappan brothers was The American Anti-Slavery Society. It was very active in the production and distribution of anti-slavery tracts and pamphlets. It organized mass conventions and recruited many of the young people who had been converted under the ministry of Charles G. Finney. Among them was Theodore Weld (1803-1895). |
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| During 1853-1859 arrived and worked in China, was deeply touched by what he saw there, returned to Britain and later founded the China Inland Mission (1866). His primary purpose was to recruit missionaries from around the world who could bring the Gospel to China in an interdenominational way. He also understood that while the British had won concessions for missionaries through the Treaty of Nanking, these concessions raised resentment against the British, among the Chinese. His concerns were well founded. Ultimately, the “Boxer” rebellion of 1899-1901 gave vent to this resentment, and thousands of Christian missionaries and their Chinese converts were massacred. |
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| This process whereby human beings are able to enter fully into the life of God; also known as “deification”. Jesus does the restoration, and the Holy Spirit does the deification. |
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| “God-barer” or “Mother of God”=Mary. 4th Century, seen as an affirmation of the deity of Christ in opposition to those who held that Christ was only human. |
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| Aka “Holy Tradition”. Speaks of the writings of the early Fathers of the Church, and the decisions of the Ecumenical Councils. In a sense, these authorities function as commentaries on the Bible. This way of understanding the development of doctrine demonstrates its communal nature. It also provides a powerful critique of the kind of rampant individualism that often typifies Protestant approaches to interpretation. While Protestants speak of scripture as the utlimate written authority, Catholics and Orthodox speak of the Word of God as inclusive of both Scripture and tradition. |
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a movement started by Ralph Waldo Emerson after William Channing’s famous Baltimore Sermon of 1819 that found Calvinist Orthodoxy too harsh and Unitarian rationalism too arid.
Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the 1830s and 1840s in the New England region of the United States as a protest to the general state of culture and society, and in particular, the state of intellectualism at Harvard University and the doctrine of the Unitarian church taught at Harvard Divinity School. Among the transcendentalists' core beliefs was the inherent goodness of both man and nature. Transcendentalists believed that society and its institutions - particularly organized religion and political parties - ultimately corrupted the purity of the individual. They had faith that man is at his best when truly "self-reliant" and independent. It is only from such real individuals that true community could be formed. |
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| are the Eastern Rite Catholic Churches that are sometimes confused as Orthodox Churches, these congregations are made up of former Orthodox believers. The term “Uniate” for Orthodox Church is the same as “sect” is for Catholic Church. Today this church finds themselves in a disputed middle ground, that is because this church is present in where the Russian Orthodox Church consider its canonical territory, where the marriage between the church and state happened. These churches provide major division between the Catholics and Orthodox. |
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| founded by Charles Chauncy and Jonathan Mayhew as a response to the Enlightenment and a propagation of rational faith |
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| In 1800, at the age of 21, an invalid from the time that she was five years of age, brought together fourteen Baptist and Congregational women in Boston, to form the Boston Female Society for Missionary Purposes. Webb led this organization for over half a century, writing thousands of letters on its behalf in order to recruit women to give to world missions. This organization became an example to many other such organizations that would later be formed. |
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| Theodore Weld entered the school in 1833, at age 30, to complete his theological studies. While he was there as a student, he managed to turn the seminary into a stronghold of abolitionism. 1. During the winter of 1833-34, the subject of slavery was the topic of public debate for eighteen straight nights. Weld led the debaters, as the abolitionists won victory after victory. But Weld and the others were also busily involved in community organizing and in education. They conducted classes for the Free Blacks in Cincinnati. While Weld won many young people to the abolitionist position, he was not successful at communicating with the Board of Trustees. They decided to put a stop to these activities. The result was that Weld and 51 of his fellow students left Lane, and many of them moved to Oberlin College. Theodore Weld went on to write two antislavery tracts that became classics; The Bible against Slavery (1837), and Slavery As It Is (1839). It was this latter tract that led Harriet Beecher Stowe, the daughter of Lyman Beecher, to write Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. |
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| (1844-1918) helped Christians understand how an evolutionary hypothesis could be applied to the development of Scripture. Wellhausen became widely known on both sides of the Atlantic through his work on the so-called “Documentary Hypothesis” |
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| Wesley, John + Wesleyan Holiness Movement |
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(1703-1791). First promoted renewal within the Anglican Church. As a university student at Oxford, he and his friends became known as the “Holy Club.” Their activities included Bible study, prayer, and several spiritual disciplines including periods of fasting, confession, and frequent participation in the Eucharist. For this, they were often ridiculed, and by virtue of their “methods” they became known as Methodists.
One of Wesley’s concerns was “holiness,” that is, the relationship between sanctification and perfectionism. He emphasized the grace of God, but he also claimed human responsibility for accepting that grace. He believed that it was possible for a Christian to walk closely with God, or to “backslide,” thereby moving away from the position in which God desired to have fellowship with him or her.
What is significant, once again, is the emphasis that Wesley placed upon personal experience, and not merely the recitation of a creed or the holding to a specific set of doctrines or dogmas. He himself experienced a “strangely warm” feeling in his heart upon his conversion. |
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| the first commissioned widow from American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions for full time missionary service. From that time onward, women played an increasingly important role in foreign missionary work that was commissioned in the United States, both at home through agencies such as the Boston Female Society for Missionary Propagation and abroad, through a growing number of mission sending agencies. |
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| It was through the efforts of William Wilberforce (1759-1833) that slavery was defeated in England. Wilberforce, an Anglican layman, was first elected to Parliament in 1781. Shortly after his election, he was influenced deeply by reading William Law’s A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life. He became part of the Oxford movement, a movement for renewal within the Anglican Church. Beginning in 1788, he began to introduce legislation to abolish the slave trade. He kept up his attacks on the issue, ultimately winning the battle for anti-slavery legislation on March 25, 1806. A. Beginning in 1807, Wilberforce joined forces with Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, another Member of Parliament and a staunch emancipator. Buxton believed that all slavery could end if the natural resources of the African continent became part of the economic package. For the next number of years, Wilberforce and Buxton led the fight to free those who were already serving as slaves. On July 29, 1833, just days before the death of Wilberforce, England’s Parliament passed legislation that outlawed slavery in all British territories. The following summer, over 800,000 slaves, largely in the “West Indies” were freed. |
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| World Council of Churches |
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| The Edinburgh 1910 Conference contributed substantially to the formation of a Commission that would begin to look seriously at issues of Faith and of Order that separated the churches. The Commission on Faith and Order would become part of the World Council of Churches when it was formed in 1948 |
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| Christianity in China reappeared in the 16th Century with the arrival of Portuguese traders in Canton, China, and subsequently, Fr. Francis Xavier came to continue that work. By 1583, China boasted a permanent Jesuit mission. |
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| One of the two black men (the slave) recruited for training at Princeton University, under the plan of Samuel Hopkins for recruiting free Blacks to be educated and returned to Africa for missionary work+colonization efforts. With the onset of the Revolutionary War and the death of Hopkins in 1803, this plan ended. |
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| Early 18th cent. German missionary employed with others by the Danish king to evangelize East Indians. His accounts of their work were translated and distributed throughout England. This made a significant impact upon the Anglican Church, whose Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK) became very interested in their work. Since most of the English who followed the Dutch into India were Anglicans, it was simply a matter of time before the Anglican Church would begin its own missionary work among the Indian people. Their missions beliefs: 1. Church and school are to go together. Christians must be able to read the Word of God, and therefore all Christian children must be educated. 2. If Christians are to read the Word of God, that word must be available to them in their own language. 3. The preaching of the Gospel must be based on an accurate knowledge of the mind of the people. 4. The aim must be definite and personal conversion. 5. At as early a date as possible an Indian Church, with its own Indian ministry, must come into being. It is easy to see that issues of salvation as well as the relationship between the Gospel and culture were high on the agenda of these missionaries. |
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