• 16th century scholar-reformer from Rotterdam, Holland, who never officially broke from the church • Known as “prince of humanists” in his day; author, editor, biblical translator par excellence.

• Greatest contribution was 1516 NT he compiled, edited, and translated into Latin.

• This “new instrument,” as he called the first edition, was the first printed Greek NT text and was used by many in the Reformation era.

• 16th century gifted linguist and biblical translator who was educated at Oxford and Cambridge, where he came into contact with Reformation theologies.

• In the early 1520s, was refused permission to translate NT into English and exiled himself to continental Europe to do so.

• First edition, translated from Greek NT, was completed in 1525 and was violently attacked in England by the church and crown.

• Remained abroad for the rest of his short life, during which time he wrote theological treatises, intro’s to books of the Bible, and translation of several OT works.

• Arrested, imprisoned, and burned in 1536; his last words were, “Lord, open the king of England’s eyes.”

• An 18th century German pietist and founder of the Moravian Brethren
• He protected persecuted Hussites (who would become the Moravian Brotherhood) on his estate and secured passage for them to the New World
• Zinzendorf is famous for establishing the evagelical colony Herrnhut on his estate in Germany as well as other colonies in Europe and North America

• 18th century Puritan Congregationalist minister known for his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”

• Child prodigy who went to Yale at 14 and became a pastor, revivalist, and theologian

• Joined his grandfather Solomon Stoddard at Northampton Congregational Church in MA but eventually left over being a proponent of “raising the bar”

• Attacked by critics of emotionalism but was himself unemotional; wrote A Faithful Narrative in response to “religious affections” controversy

• After Northampton Congregational, was a missionary to Native Americans and soon-to-be president of the College of New Jersey when he died of smallpox

• 16th century, Pacifists, Zurich under Zwingli; Swiss Brethren were Anabaptists.

• Term was invented to describe radical Protestants who denied the validity of infant baptism because of its lack of biblical precedent.

• Ana- = again; “re-baptizers” because they allowed for second baptisms; only true baptism was believer’s baptism.

• Munster in Germany introduced a militant strain—they invaded Munster, proclaiming it an Anabaptist kingdom.

• In the Netherlands, Menno Simmons organized Anabaptists who became known as Mennonites, also pacifistic.

• Derived from Latin for “infant baptism.” Practiced by Catholics, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Anglicans, and Methodists, among others.

With the church from the beginning

• Arose in 16th century in reaction to and out of the Church of England—Protestants who wanted to purify the Elizabethan church.
  
• When Elizabeth gained the throne in 1558, she introduced the via media, and Puritans wanted to strip England of the “rags of popery.” 
  
• Repressed under Elizabeth but gained political power under James I and his son Charles I, finally seizing the gov’t in 1649.
  
• The Puritans found a setting for their “grand experiment” in freedom of religion in the American colonies and profoundly influenced American ethos.

• 17th century. James I’s son; second of Stuart kings of England.

• Grandson of Mary and married to a Catholic, he wanted to move the C of E away from Calvinism and toward tolerance of Catholics.

• Faced with a growing Puritan party in Parliament who opposed his movement toward traditional beliefs, he appointed William Laud archbishop of Canterbury to curb the growth of Puritan influence.

• Laud enforced a “thorough policy” supposed to ensure uniformity of worship. When Charles and Laud insisted that his subjects in Scotland adopt a Prayer Book like the English one, a rebellion took place leading to the Covenanters movement. • Tensions at home with a Puritan Parliament led to Civil War, which the royalists lost. The following year, Charles was executed in London by a reactionary party called Rump Parliament.

• 17th century. An early English Baptist who returned to England after a sojourn in Holland where he had joined a separatist community.

• In 1612 he founded the first General Baptist congregation in London.

• 17th-century English immigrant to the Massachusetts Bay Colony whose theological views and criticism of John Wilson, Congregational minister of the Boston Church, led to her famous trial.

• Held to the doctrine of “inner light,” in which the Holy Spirit bears direct witness to people’s spirits, resulting in short term prophecy and illumination of the biblical text. • Disavowed antinomianism, but charged with antinomianism, she was exiled with her husband and children, all of whom were killed in a Native American attack in NY.

• 18th century influential thinker of the German Enlightenment and a formative voice for theological liberalism; First truly critical idealist in terms of the Bible.

• Son of a Lutheran pastor who made his early mark as a playwright and drama critic.

• His research in editing the works of Reimarus led to his rejection of the historicity of the Bible; Christianity was at best an enlightened human moral system.

• Miracles cannot be used to prove Christianity when we have no way to prove miracles. “That, then, is the ugly great ditch which I cannot cross, however often and however earnestly I have tried to make that leap.” (Lessing’s Ditch) • His play “Nathan der Weise” epitomized liberal virtues in Nathan, a kind, wise, tolerant Jew. Key theological writing "The Education of Humankind" was followed by work on the origins of the gospel narratives.

• Last Tudor monarch to reign as queen of England (16th Century)
  
• Child of Henry VIII and 2nd wife, Anne Boleyn
• Ascended to the throne after the death of her sister, Mary Tudor
• Negotiated the Via Media (religious compromise), also known as the Elizabethan Settlement- borrowing elements from both Protestant AND Catholic traditions
• Never married, known as the Virgin Queen
• Considered one of the most powerful rulers in Europe after defeating the Spanish Armada
  

·      Christian theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. 

·      Originated from the Dutch theologian Cornelius Otto Jansen.

·      Through the 17^th & 18^th centuries, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Roman Catholic Church (primarily in France), and was opposed by many in the Catholic hierarchy, especially the Jesuits.

·      Coined the termed Jansenism to identify themselves with Calvinism.

·      1552-1610, in Italy

·      Italian Jesuit priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China Mission as it existed in the 17^th and 18^th centuries.

·      Learned theology and law in a Roman Jesuits’ school.

·      Journeyed on a missionary expedition to India, and later arrived at a Portuguese trading post on the South China Sea coast.

·      Learned Chinese language and customs in 1582, and became of the first western scholars to master Chinese script.

·      Traveled to major cities in order to find a way to establish a permanent Jesuit mission house outside of Macau.

• (literally: "Patronage) system in Spain  was the expression of royal patronage controlling major appointments of Church officials and the management of Church revenues, under terms of concordats with the Holy See. The resulting structure of royal power and ecclesiastical privileges, was formative in the Spanish colonial empire. It resulted in a characteristic constant intermingling of trade, politics, and religion.
• The counterweight to the system was provided by Jesuit missions, whose allegiance lay with the hierarchy of their Order, directly responsible to the Popee. The beneficiaries of the Portuguese opposed the authority of the vicars apostolic in the Asian missions.

*The was a system that was employed mainly by the Spanish crown during the

  colonization of the Americas to regulate Native American labour.

*In the encomienda, the crown granted a person a specified number of natives 

for whom they were to take responsibility. In theory, the receiver of the grant was to protect the natives from warring tribes and to instruct them in the

  Spanish language and in the Catholic faith in return they could extract tribute

  from the natives in the form of labor, gold or other products.

*Difference between this & slavery was minimal. Natives were forced to do

  hard labor & subjected to extreme punishment & death if they resisted

•  17th Century French saint, founder of the Congregation of the Mission (Lazarists, or Vincentians) for preaching missions to the peasantry and for educating and training a pastoral clergy.

• Educated by the Franciscans at Dax, France, he was ordained in 1600 and graduated from the University of Toulouse in 1604. He was allegedly captured at sea by Barbary pirates but escaped. He spent a year in Rome, then went to Paris, where he remained permanently.
• Was a vociferous opponent of Jansenism.
  

Written in the seventeenth century by William Ames the Medulla Theologiae (The Marrow of Theology) was a Classic Puritan work on Covenants Doctrine of Covenant Theology – when you get to covenants of God you’re getting close to the power of God Ames was much influenced in terms of method by Ramism, and opposed the residual teaching of Aristotle.

• The most widely-read Puritan text in Holland, England, Germany, and New England • Thoroughly anti-scholastic; for Ames, what one needs to interpret scripture is the Holy Spirit, not an understanding of ancient languages. • Only the regenerate knew the true meaning of the Bible; where the natural person sees bare bones, the spiritual person can crack the bones and extract the marrow. • Implications: If only someone with religious experience can correctly interpret the Sacred Text, then religious experience is as important as clerical education. Only those who were both pious and learned should teach.

17th Century French Mathematician

After he had a conversion experience and he began to make visits to the Jansenist monastery Port-Royal des Champs about 30 km south west of Paris. He began to publish anonymous works on religious topics, eighteen Provincial Letters being published during 1656 and early 1657. These were written in defence of his friend Antoine Arnauld, an opponent of the Jesuits and a defender of Jansenism, who was on trial before the faculty of theology in Paris for his controversial religious works. Pascal's most famous work in philosophy is Pensées, a collection of personal thoughts on human suffering and faith in God which he began in late 1656 and continued to work on during 1657 and 1658. This work contains 'Pascal's wager' which claims to prove that belief in God is rational with the following argument.

If God does not exist, one will lose nothing by believing in him, while if he does exist, one will lose everything by not believing.

A 17th century English clergyman of Calvinist views who founded a separatist congregation associated with the Brownists. • Semi-separatist; he allowed that the church of England was a true church in need of a thorough reformation. • The religious society which he succeeded in bringing together in Southwark is generally supposed to have been the first congregational church in England • Moved to Virginia and formed a settlement named after him (Jacobopolis).

A 17th century self-taught scholar and poet of the Baroque school, and nun of New Spain. Although she lived in a colonial era when Mexico was part of the Spanish Empire, she is considered today a Mexican writer, and stands at the beginning of the history of Mexican literature in the Spanish language.

In Sor Juana's Carta Atenagorica she criticized a Jesuit priest who used Paul in order to critique Sor Juana in particular and women in general.  Her radical views were especially dangerous because the Counter Reformation was raging. Anyone who challenged societal values and ecclesiastical dogma could be investigated by the Spanish Inquisition on suspicion of heresy.

Matters came to a head in 1690, when a letter was published attacking Sor Juana's focus on the sciences, and suggesting that she should devote her time to soft theology.

However, powerful representatives from the Viceregal Court and the Jesuit Order were her protectors and she was widely read in Spain, being called "the Tenth Muse". She was lauded as the first great poet of Latin America. Her work was also printed by the first printing press in New Spain.

In response to her critics, Sor Juana wrote a letter entitled Respuesta a Sor Filotea (Reply to Sister Filotea), in which she defended women's right to education. In response, the Archbishop of Mexico joined other high-ranking officials in condemning Sor Juana's "waywardness".

*Our Lady of Copacabana; variant: Blessed Virgin of the Candelaria, Our Lady of Copacabana) is the patron saint of Bolivia. She is venerated in Bolivia during her feast day of February 2, the day of the Purification of Mary, or feast of the Virgen de la Candelaria. She is also venerated on August 5 with her own liturgy and popular celebration.

*Francisco Tito Yupanqui, an amateur sculptor decided to make a statue in order to venerate Mary.

*His original work was not accepted by the church and neither was his revision, but the statue eventually made it to Copacabana where several miracles were attributed to it.

German 17th century member of the Lutheran clergy and the first Pietist missionary to India.

Studied at Halle University.

One of the first protestant missionaries to India

Brought printing press to India

• 17th Century Puritan belief
• Made in the Garden between God and Adam (who represented mankind).
• Promised life for obedience, death for disobedience
• Adam/all mankind broke the covenant, stand condemned, and covenant of works continues to function after the fall as the moral law.
  

• 17th Century Puritan Belief
• Promises eternal life for all people who receive forgiveness of sin through Christ- He is the convenental representative fulfilling the covenant of works on their behalf.
• The historical expression of the eternal covenant of redemption.
• Became the basis for all future covenants God made w/mankind
  

• In 1732, the Bohemian Brethren sent missionaries to the Danish Virgin Islands for the first time.
• In 1736 in St. Thomas, instead of working with expats, the Moravian missionaries evangelized the black slave population.

• "The Essentials of the Lord's Teaching", by Chong Yak-jong Augustine, who was martyred in 1801, is the first Christian theological work written in Korean.
• The articles deal with Confucian, Buddhist, Taoist, and Shamanist worldviews.
• Man's mind by itself knows the existence of the Lord, all creation cannot come into existence by itself, and Buddha and the Bodhisattva are men brought into existence by the Lord.

John of the Cross

• 16th-century Spanish mystic
• Studied at a Jesuit school, then became a Carmelite priest
• Became a reformer of the Carmelite order after contact with St. Teresa of Avila (the two started the "discalced" Carmelites).
• Foremost Spanish poet; wrote "Dark Night of the Soul"