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U.S. International relations policy set forth on March 12, 1947, which stated that the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to prevent them from falling into the Soviet sphere.
-Historians often consider it as the start of the Cold War, and the start of the containment policy to stop Soviet expansion
-Shows who these new superpowers were after WWII and their overwhelming interference in the Middle East in this time period-- both are trying to protect their interests in ME- also causes resentment in ME because there are several US military bases developed in Turkey as retribution for all the aid given to Turkey-- the aid makes allies of Turkey and US and helps Turkey's economic growth-- but now Turkish people are saying do we really want these bases here? |
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-est. 1945-- six members initially-- Egypt, Transjordan, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria
-Now has 22 members but is basically ineffective in a lot of ways
-Main Goal: “to draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries.“ (Source: Pact of the League of Arab States, March 22, 1945“).
-The idea of the Arab League was mooted in 1942 by the British, who wanted to rally Arab countries against the Axis powers. However, the league did not take off until March 1945, just before the end of World War II.
-At that time the issues that dominated the league's agenda were freeing those Arab countries still under colonial rule, and preventing the Jewish community in Palestine from creating a Jewish state. |
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-movement in the 1950's and the first half of the 1960's toward a sense of unity among the Arab states, pride in common culture and language among the Arab states and a reaction against Western imperialism, so basically a secular Arab Nationalism/socialism-- General Abdel Nasser is figurehead of this movement in the Middle East-- he wanted to liberate Egypt from British influence and nationalize Egypt's national resources (Suez Canal in particular)
-closely associated with "modernity", militarism, and Arab unity
- Advocates of pan-Arabism have often espoused socialist principles and strongly opposed Western political involvement in the Arab world. It also sought to empower Arab states from outside forces by forming alliances and, to a lesser extent, economic co-operation. |
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-democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 until 1953
-committed to a democratic vision for Iran
-Nationalized oil in Iran and gets rid of corrupt military officials
-symbolizes a short lived experiment in democracy in Iran
-His govnt is overthrown in a coup d'état orchestrated by the American CIA in 1953 and he is replaced by the U.S. friendly son of Reza Shah
-Iran didn't have the resources to develop their own oil, so when they decided they want to nationalize oil, Britain tells the US they they might turn to the Soviet Union -- this is what convinces the US to get involved in the coup |
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-had been exiled but returns to Iran in 1979 to lead the Revolution
-religious figurehead of the Iranian Revolution that overthrows the Shah in 1979 -- we need to reestablish Islam and I will be the Supreme religious leader
-He wants to see the ulama's as the leaders of society
-ushers in an era of Islamic revivalism in Iran that continues to the present day within the Iranian government
-In his writings and preachings he expanded the Shi'a Usuli theory of the "guardianship of the jurisconsult (clerical authority)" to include theocratic political rule by the Islamic jurists.
-Used the police force to impose new harsh ISlamic guidelines upon society, banning alcohol and enforcing the wearing of the hijab
-Hurts ties with US |
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-1967-- direct result of Suez Canal Crisis-- Israel believes it will be attacked by United Arab Armies so it attacks Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, and within six days wins a conclusive victory, gains legitimacy as a force to be reckoned with, and gains a lot of territory, including a LOT of Palestinian land.
-War with Israel that lasts only six days and ends all hope of Pan Arabism/Nasserism in the Middle East, it also marks the beginning of Islamic Revivalism and Radicalism as a reaction against the failed secularism of Nasser's Pan Arabism.
-More tangible results: Israel gains control of Jerusalem, Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank, and Golan Heights, and the birth of the PLO |
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-adopted unanimously after the six day war of 1967
-The preamble refers to the "inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war"
-Asks Israel to withdraw its armed forces from territories occupied in recent conflict
-demands respect of "every state in the area" and their right to live in peace free from threats of violence or force
-completely ignored by Israel |
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-forms in 1964 because of the need for a Palestinian political voice.
-secular nationalist, led for a long time by Yasser Arafat
-desire an independent Palestinian state
-considered a terrorist organization by US until 1991
-accepted by countries in ME as a legitimate political entity
-significance-first real Palestinian voice |
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-First Intifada (1987-90): Palestinian grassroots movement in West Bank and Gaza Strip in which Palestinians demand rights and an end to Israeli occupation. Rock-throwing becomes a symbol of this movement-- Israeli Defense Forces killed an estimated 1,087 Palestinians while Palestinians killed 100 Israeli civilians and 60 Israeli security forces personnel--leads to the Palestinian Declaration of statehood in 1988
-Second Intifada (2000): In response to the Oslo Accords perhaps--much more violent this time around- not just rock throwing--Both parties caused high numbers of casualties among civilians as well as combatants: the Palestinians by numerous bomb attacks and gunfire; the Israelis by tank and gunfire and air attacks, by numerous targeted killings, and by harsh reactions on demonstrations. The death toll, including both military and civilian, is estimated to be about 3,000 Palestinians and 1,000 Israelis |
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| -After the 1967 Six Day War, Israel gained a lot of previously Palestinian territory and because Israel experiences so much Jewish immigration, these immirants are inhabiting these "settlements" and this makes for some pretty serious cotnroversy-- The UN 242 Resolution addressed the issue but nothing has been done. |
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-Oslo I (1993): result of secret conferences between Israel and Palestine-- seemed hopeful--an attempt in 1993 to set up a framework that would lead to the resolution of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict. It was the first face-to-face agreement between the government of Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
-Oslo II (1995): envisioned the establishment of a Palestinian interim self-government in the Palestinian territories, but fell short of the promise of an independent Palestinian state. |
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-est. 1973- the Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement
-offshoot of Muslim Brotherhood
-desires to liberate Palestine from Israeli occupation and to establish an Islamic state
-Israel supported them at first
-similar to the Muslim Brotherhood, they gain support through providing social services to the masses
-n the January 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections Hamas won a decisive majority in the Palestinian Parliament,defeating the PLO-affiliated Fatah party.
-marks the rise of Palestinian Islamic Nationalism |
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-founded in 1928 in Egypt by Hassan al Banna
-organized around Sufi Islam ideals and belief in the gradual Islamization of society and serving the poor
-first organization to embrace a political Islam.
-Gain political power in Egypt gradually and most recently under Morsi |
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-radical leader of the Muslim Brotherhood who believes in jahiliyya and jihad.
-He expanded the concept of jihad to say that we have to fight --wrote sign posts on the road which says that the function of govnt is to ensure the enforcement of gods law so Egypt is really doing it wrong
-believed in a fully Islamic govnt and believed that if violence was necessary, it should be used-- helped to give an ideology to radical Islamic groups who would later assassinate Sadat
-executed in 1966-- his death sparks huge frustration against Nasser |
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-Jihad is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle".
There are two commonly accepted meanings of jihad: an inner spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle-- one is nonviolent and this is accepted by the majority of Muslims. However, a select few of radicals have taken this term to justify violent terrorist acts against non-muslims-- inciting conflict and violence both within the ME and elsewhere (911 attacks)
-Osama Ben Laden's Call for Jihad, 1998 |
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Since the Baath party takeover in 1963, Syrian Political power has long been held by a small Alawite elite, although it is being hotly contested in a civil war initially inspired by the Arab Spring
-the reason for current issues in Syria-- Alawites are only 10% of the popultaion in Syria and yet they hold all the power |
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-A kind of governmental power-sharing-- kept a sectarian harmony in Lebanon until the 1970's.
-basically, the president is Christian and the PM is Muslim.
-This leads to issues when it seems that Muslims' voices are not being heard within this system-- Civil War in 1975 divides the country between Christian Lebanese and Muslim Lebanese.
-Attempt to balance power in the middle east |
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-Hafiz al Assad was born an Alawite Muslim, soon became member of Baath Party
-1963 Baath party takes control in Syria and in 1971 Al Asad takes control and rules until 2000, when he is replaced by his son Bashar al Assad, who had had almost no political experience at that point |
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-Nixon's administration sends a huge amount of aid and supplies to Israel during the 1973 October war
-OPEC announces in 1973 that all oil shipments to any country which had supported Israel militarily in its recent war with Egypt will be suspended. OPEC also raises the price of oil by 70%
-Result is the entrance of oil as a diplomatic tool- US convinces Israel to pull back its troops from Sinai and the Golan Heights |
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-idea that comes from Michael Ross' article "Does Oil Hinder Democracy?"
-a rentier state, according to Ross, is one in which government revenues are derived from external (foreign-paid) rents for natural resources such as oil and minerals. This money goes directly to the government who then redistributes it back to the people in welfare prgrams and the like.
-Because these states become so wealthy, there is no need for taxation and so the people are less likely to demand a voice
-Cisman: Countries that derive all or a substantial portion of their national revenues from the rent of indigenous resources to external clients. Not only from oil but pipeline crossing, transit fees, remittances etc.
Minerals generate rent-rents captured by the state- state redistributes the revenue through patrimonial lines. |
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-1978 meeting between Anwar Sadat of Egypt, Menachem Begin of Israel, and Jimmy Carter of the United States--
-If Sadat will recognize Israel as a legitimate state, Begin will give Egypt back Sinai
-This marks the first time an Arab state has recognized Israel, and Sadat is viewed as a traitor and assassinated in 1981 |
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In power in Egypt from 1981 until 2011 when he was ousted from power by the Arab Spring movement. His regime was marked by stagnation, corruption, and authoritarianism. It was about time he was forced out of power.
-his ties with Israel and the West cause unpopularity toward him-- he was a puppet |
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| The Policy of Dual Containment |
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-US efforts to isolate both Iran and Iraq through economic and military sanctions (US appointing itself as protector of the Gulf)
US ships and troops patrolled the area all the time. Permanent US presence in the ME….. |
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-movement among Muslim women to demand the right to self expression-- as seen in the movie "Persepolis"
Many Iranian women want what they have desired for so long -- equal rights. Women make up an important part of Iran's population. They constitute 65 percent of all university students, but only 12 percent of women are in the work force.
-started after Revolution 1979-- started a whole movement |
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-Negative Western perception of Muslims and of the Middle East as a whole-- based upon ignorance. A lot of it comes from the fact that all people tend to know about the middle east is that that is where the terrorists of 911 came from.
Edward Said consider Islamophobia as it is evinced in Orientalism to be a 'secret sharer' in a more general antisemitic Western tradition
Daniel Pipes says that "'Islamophobia' deceptively conflates two distinct phenomena: fear of Islam and fear of radical Islam." |
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-grassroots social movement that begain in Tunisia in December 2010 and spread rapidly throughout the ME, toppling regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen, and provokes a demand for change in other countries as well.
-The Arab Spring shows that the people of the middle east are fed up with the lack of democracy in their countries and are willing to fight to gain their rights. |
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-Cold War Superpowers' influences (US:Israel, Saudi Arabia, Egypt/ Soviet Union: Iran, Iraq, Syria)--reaction against this influence leads to intense anti-imperialism that still exists
-Pan Arabism/Nasserism at first but then an Islamic revivalism when that fails in the Six Day War 1967
-What does stick from the ideals of Nasserism is the intention of all ME countries to nationalize their resources (Suez Canal in Egypt, oil in gulf states, iran, and iraq)
-Palestinian issue causes tension all over middle east and frustration with the US who supports Israel
-1973 Oil Crisis makes oil a diplomatic weapon for the first time
-Along with Islamic Revivalism we have the rise of political islam, especially in Egypt with the Muslim Brotherhood.. elsewhere?
-Rise of Baath party ideologies in Syria and Iraq with Al Asad and Saddam Hussein
-Authoritarian regimes gain power almost everywhere in the ME in the 1960's/Failure of democracy pretty much across the board except in Turkey, where it still struggles |
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| Why does democracy fail in ME? |
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-Lack of concept of civil rights, weak civil society, no NGO's, and no tradition for democracy
-Wealth disparities mean the middle class is super small
-Military-backed regimes mean that any signs of dissent are met with brutal responses
-Superpowers prefer stability of authoritarian regimes to instability of democracy to protect their oil interests and especially during the cold war so that the other team doesn't sneak around and steal an ally-- example is the CIA operation to topple Mussadeq (sp) in Iran even though he was headed in a great democratic direction
-In gulf states, the rentier effect that Ross talks about is a hindrance-- no taxation, so no representation
-The issue of Islam
-Geographically distant from centers of democracy |
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1800's: Muhammed Ali and very powerful Egypt moving towards modernization
1952: Egyptian Revolution, led by military, headed by Nasser
1956: Nationalization of Suez Canal and attack of BRitain, France, and Israel-- brief glory for Nasserism
1967: Six Day War with Israel kills the dream of Nasserism
1970: Nasser dies and is replaced by Anwar Sadat
1978: Camp David Accords- Sadat s then considered a traitor and is killed in 1981
1981-2011: Hosni Mubarak in power along with his corrupt authoritarian regime using "emergency law" as an excuse and is finally ousted from power by the Arab Spring movement
2011-2012: Rule of Mohammed Morsi, who is part of the Muslim Brotherhood-- he is taken out of power in 2012 by the military
2013: Egypt is under military rule, still trying to see what will happen next |
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1968: Military overthrown by the Socialist Baath Party in a coup de tat. Saddam Hussein gradually moves to the top and becomes totalitarian ruler
1968-2003: Baath party rule under Saddam Hussein
2003: the Baath party banned in Iraq after the 2nd Gulf War |
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1950's: Soviet Influence during cold war
1958: Attempt at merging with Egypt when Pan Arabism and Nasserism was all the rage but that just didn't work out
1949-1970: Series of military coups
Since 1970: the country has been ruled by the alawite Asad family, who were also the head of the Baath Party
1970-2000: corrupt and brutal authoritarian rule of Hafez Al Asad
2000: His son Bashar al Asad takes over but nothing changes except he now has a civil war to contend with-
Has been under "Emergency Law" since 1963 |
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1946: French troops withdraw for some real independence
After that: confessional politics-- power sharing between Christians and Muslims, but it ends up being a "Christian dominated capitalist state with a discontented Sunni Muslim population" who feel they actually have no voice
1975: Civil War-- Muslim Lebanese Militia v. Christian Lebanese Militia |
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1932: the modern Saudi State is founded by al Saud and his family has had power since then
1973: Oil Crisis, managed by OPEC, which included Saudi Arabia-- Oil becomes a diplomatic weapon
1992: Iraqi invasion of Kuwait-Saudis invited foreign troops on Saudi soil to liberate Kuwait, creating further tension between the royal family and the public who are largely anti-imperialist and don't like the US like their rulers do |
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| Major issues in Israeli-Palestinian Issue: |
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| the permanent borders between Israel and the PA, the status of Jerusalem, the future of Israeli settlements, the water rights of each side, and the refugee problem.-- there is no solution! |
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| Islam meets the West-- essay question probs |
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-Islam and the West have been interconnected for centuries-- this is not a new issue.
-Crusaders not only shed blood but also transferred ideas and expanded trade options
-Muslims lost their glory and superiority in last 200 years, and that led up to a deep frustration among the Muslims
-There are millions of Muslims living in the West, and Westerners living in the Middle East- this could contribute to more open minds and some mutual understanding
-Think of for how long the West has imposed itself upon the Middle East-- from colonialism of Britain and France to the Cold War influence of the US and USSR, to the simple cutural changs brought to the middle east by the forces of modernization brought from the West-- the West has been involved in the ME for centuries, protecting its own interests with no regard for the countries themselves, not to mention the United States' support for Israel. also the US has been super hypocritical-- think Operation Ajax |
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| The Future of the Middle East? |
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-Globalization and “erosion” of Islamic culture
-Islam and the West
-Islamic minorities in non-Islamic countries
-Islamic Extremism
-Arab Spring and its repercussions
-Islam and Democracy
-Autocratic and totalitarian regimes
-Demography and Islamic Youth
-Islam and capitalism: The rise of Islamic bourgeois, and Middle Class
-Sunni-Shia rival in the ME
-Women’s rights and Human rights
-Oil rich countries vs. Poor countries |
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| We got a lot of our higher educational structure from Islam, but also the ideas of scholasticism and humanism |
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| Hemispheric interaction dates back to prehistoric nomadic tribes and trade routes--just to say that we have relied on one another for a really really long time |
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| The Iranian youth is a majority of the population-- they are demanding a shift toward modernity and freedom of speech and expression through film and and thriving women's movement |
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| Most ME countries have no basis for democracy to work-- Turkey has had the longest running association with the West, was never under colonial rule and therefore chose democracy for themselves, not because of its implementation by a Western power. Also, Turkey is a secular state , which makes it easier. Also Turkey's economic growth was not linked to oil or some natural accident. |
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Yes, oil does hinder democracy-- so do other minerals-- because of
1. rentier effect: no taxation, so no representation, also lots of welfare benefits and what not so why complain?
2. repression effect: lots of money to spend on eliminating dissenting voices
3. modernization effect: no civil society |
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| John Esposito and John Voll |
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| Islam and democracy are not inherently incompatible, although there are a lot of obstacles in reconciling the two. Turkey is doing it! (Islamic political parties) This is all hotly debated |
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| Palestinian Declaration of Independence |
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| Now that we have the momentum of the intifada, and the political legitimacy of the PLO, we declare statehood and demand that the UN recognizes their earlier promises to protect our rights and sovereignty. |
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| Explains just how terrible and drastic was the death of the Palestinian state-- hundreds of thousands forced out of their homes by "Jewish whispering operations" that spread fear. (Result of UN Partition Plan, 1947-- which was a betrayal by Britain and the UN) |
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| Barack Obama's speech in Cairo 2009 |
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| Pretty straight forward-- we need to seek peace instead of conflict |
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| He is refuting Huntington's article Clash of Civilizations-- He says Huntington's reasoning is orientalist and his whole argument based on oversimplifications of hugely complicated political entities. He also says consider how many Muslims live in the West-- the two cultures are coinciding! |
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| Prince Charles' speech 1993 |
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| We need to stop seeing only the differences between us and start focusing not only on our commonalities (common religious ideals and values, historical quest for learning, common human experience), but also how to teach our children to seek peace and not fear and hatred |
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| Global politics from here on out will be shaped by civilizational conflicts (conflicts between differing groups who share a culture, history, or language) rather than economic or nation-state conflicts. His argument is too simplified and is set in the cold war period- Tone of orientalism. |
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| How has Islam had an effect on the middle east over time? |
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-Ottoman Empire based on Islam
-fight against Islam (Ataturk, Reza Shah)
-Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia
-Israeli Palestine Issue-- Palestine has religious right, well they both think that
-1967 war leads into a push away from pan arabism secularism towards islamic revivalism
-political islam-Hamas and Muslim Brotherhood |
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