Sociology 

The systematic study of human society. 

August Comte 

• Coined the term Sociology
• Realized that to understand society, one must take a scientific approach of understanding.
• This approach is known as Positivism. 

Positivism 

A way of understanding based on science. 

Theoretical Paradigm 

A basic way of thinking about society. 

Structural-Functionalism 

Sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and integrity. 

Structural Functionalism 

1.  Social Structure-a stable pattern of social behavior.
2. • Social Function-consequences for the operation of society as a whole. 

Conflict Theory 

The framework that see society as an arena that generates conflict and change. 

Conflict Theory (Cont.) 

Rejects the notion that social structure benefits society as a whole, but instead, helps some reap the benefits from society while others are deprived of these resources. 

Types of Functions 

• Manifest-the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern. IE. Its primary purpose.

• Latent-unintended or unrecognized consequences of any social pattern. 

Symbolic Interactionism 

Sees society as a product of the everyday interactions of individuals. Society is merely the result of people interacting with each other. This is accomplished because people attach meaning to everything in which they come into contact. 

Two Methods of Research 

data that is gathered is not subject to statistical manipulation. A very “rich” method.

1. Interview-face to face questions and answers.
2.  Participant Observation-becoming part of the research and recording what happens 

data that is gathered can be statistically manipulated.

– Survey-questionnaire designed to elicit responses about a specific criteria. Contain open and close ended questions.

– Experiment-controlled environment where variables are manipulated and the outcome measured.

– Secondary analysis-Using pre-existing data to test your hypothesis. 

Types of Data 

• Nominal-data that is a label. Sex, race, etc.
• Ordinal-data that is measured by rank order. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.
• Interval-data that has equal intervals. Age.
• Ratio-same as interval but has an absolute zero value. Kelvin temperature scale. 

Variables 

• Independent variable- the variable that is manipulated or changed to see how it effects/influences another variable.

• Dependant Variable- the variable that is being tested. 

Culture 

values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that, together, form a people’s way of life. 

Society 

-people who interact in a defined territory and shared culture. 

Components of Culture 

Symbols 

anything that carries a recognized of shared meaning. 

Language 

a system of symbols that allows people to communicate to one another. Cultural Transmission is the process by which a generation passes on its culture to the next generation. 

Values and beliefs 

a. Values-culturally defined standards by which people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty and that serve as broad guidelines to social living.

b. Beliefs-specific statements about what people hold true. 

Norms 

Prescriptive-define what is acceptable or desirable.

Proscriptive-define what is not acceptable or desirable. 

Norms come into existence through: 

Social Consensus-over time, guidelines as to acceptable behavior becomes established and looked upon as tradition.

Social Conflict-A part of society, due to its inherent power within society, imposes it guidelines in order to control the powerless. 

Two Types of Norms 

Folkways and Mores

Folkways 

less restrict norms that are typically not as severely sanctioned for violation. 

Mores 

codified norms that usually have sanctions that are set out in writing. 

Artifacts 

material goods that are unique to a culture. Chopsticks. 

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How Cultural Change Occurs 

1. Invention-creation of new cultural elements.
2. Discovery-recognizing and understanding something all ready in existence.
3. Diffusion-adopting cultural aspects from another culture. 

Culture Concepts 

• Cultural Integration-One aspect of cultural change provoking change in another aspect of culture.

• Cultural Lag-Cultural elements not changing or evolving on an equal time line.

Socialization 

The internalization and adherence of societal expectations and guidelines. 

Harlow’s Monkeys 

• Nature vs. Nurture

• Cloth “mother” preferred over feeding “mother.”

• Social adjustment is based on interaction and feelings of belonging over basic physiological needs. 

Three Elements 

• Id-impulsive, pleasure seeking
• Super ego-antithesis of the id. The restraining device.
• Ego-arbiter of the id and super ego 

Movement through these stages of development is accomplished through one of two processes. 

• Assimilation- 

absorbing new information by emphasizing its similarities to old information and fitting it into previously established cognitive structures. 

• Accommodation 

adjustment to new information by establishing new cognitive structures. 

Agents of Socialization 

• Family-Greatest impact of all agents. Primary job is teaching skills, values, and beliefs. Develops the child’s sense of self.

• School-teaches knowledge and skills. First encounter with beauracracy. Begin to learn gender roles by how males and females are funneled into categories. 

Two Types of Status 

• Ascribed: a status within which one is born or receives involuntarily later in life.

• Achieved: one which a person assumes based on personal effort and ability. Done voluntarily. 

Master Status 

Where a person derives most of his/her social identity. Often shapes the person’s entire life. 

Roles 

Behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status. 

Role Conflict 

Conflict between roles corresponding to two or more statuses. 

Role Strain 

Tension between roles within a single status. 

Process by which people disengage from important social roles 

Using body movement, gestures, and facial expressions to convey information. 

Two or more people who identify and interact with one another. 

Small social group whose members share personal and enduring relationships. 

• Strong emotional ties.
• Personal orientation
• Usually long term
• Involving many varied activities
• Usually an ends within themselves 

Large and impersonal group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity. 

• Goal oriented
• Often Short Term
• Usually involve few activities

• Seen as a means to an end 

• Instrumental- leadership that emphasizes the completion of tasks.

– The Boss

• Expressive-focuses on collective well being of the group.

– The Care-taker 

1. Denial of Responsibility-deviance caused by factors outside his control.
2. Denial of Injury-view acts as causing no injury to victim.
3. Denial of the Victim-Justifies actions by acknowledging that the act was “rightful” punishment or retaliation.
4. Condemnation of the Condemners- Shifting focus from the deviant to those who judge the deviance. 

• Re-affirmation of norms

• Social Solidarity
• Calls for reform
• Contrast effect

• Safety valve
• Leadership
• Social and Cultural Change

• Warning Device
• Excitement