Term
| synamorphies of all animals (4 things) |
|
Definition
-similar rRNAs
-unique cell junctions
-extracellular molecules like collagen or proteoglycan
-similarities in Hox and other developmental genes |
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Term
| probably common ancestor of animals? |
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Definition
| flagellated protist, similar to choanoflagellates and sponges |
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Term
| how to differentiate major animal groups? (4 things) |
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Definition
-# of germ layers in embryo
-#body plan: symmetry, body cavities, segmentation, external appendages
-mouth vs anus initial formation
-existence/role of brain |
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Term
| types of germ layers of embryo? |
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Definition
-diploblastic: two cell layers (ectoderm, endoderm)
-triploblastic: three cell layers (edno,ecto,mesoderm) |
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Term
| different methods of analyzing body plan? (4 things) |
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Definition
| symmetry, body cavity structures, segmentation, external appendages |
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Term
|
Definition
- radial symmetry: one main central axis
- bilateral symmetry: can be divided into mirror image halves on only one plane through midline
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Term
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Definition
| bilateral symmetry and stuff: nerves and sensory organs are concentrated at the anterior end, as it encounters the environment first |
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Term
| body cavity types (3 things) |
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Definition
-acoelomate: no enclosed body cavity
-pseudocoelomate: cavity lined w/ mesoderm, but no mesoderm on outside of internal organs
-coelomate: mesoderm inside caivities and outside internal organs |
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Term
|
Definition
| facilitates body region specialization, movement control, and body shape changes |
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Term
| mouth vs anus (when is it developed, what two classifications come from this) |
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Definition
during GASTRULATION, the BLASTOPORE is comes from a hollow ball of cells to become mouth or anus first
-proteostome: mouth first
-deuterostome: "mouth second" or anus first |
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Term
| what contain the largest number of known animal species? |
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Definition
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Term
| animal group divisions? (6 things) |
|
Definition
- bilateria: monophyletic group including protostomes and deuterostomes; bilaterally symmetric, triploblastic
- eumetazoans: includes all animal groups xcept sponges and placozoans; body symmetry, gut and nervous system, tissue organization
- sponges: no distinct tissue types; body plan based on water canal system: water and food pass into canal system were choanocytes capture food; sexual and asexual reproduction
- placozoans: four cell types, weakly differentiated tissue layers; flattened animals adhering to substrates, asymmetric, diploblastic, swimming stage, sexual and asexual reproduction
- ctenophores: (comb jellies) radial symmetry, diploblastic w/ extracellular matrix MESOGLEA between layers, movement via cilia, complete gut
- cnidarians: jellyfishes, sea anemones, corals, hydrozoans, almost all marine; radial symmetry, GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY for digestion, circulation, and gas exchange w/ hydrostatic skeleton; have a polyp and medusa stage
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Term
| what are intracellular and extracellular fluid |
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Definition
- intracellular fluid: holds most water within cells
- extracellular fluid: holds water in blood plasma and INTERSTITIAL fluid that bathes each cell
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Term
| description + protein of epithelial tissue |
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Definition
-rapidly dividing cells, flat, water proof
-keratin |
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Term
| description + protein of muscle tissue |
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Definition
-long, thin
-myosin, actin |
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Term
| description + protein of nervous tissue |
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Definition
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|
Term
| description + protein of connective tissue |
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Definition
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|
Term
| four different kinds of tissue |
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Definition
| epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous |
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Term
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Definition
-obtain, integrate, and process info
-contain sensors to provide feedback info to be compared with set point
-issues commands to controlled systems |
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Term
| commands of regulatory systems |
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Definition
hormones - slow, long lasting
nervous - fast, short lasting |
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Term
|
Definition
| cells that secrete endocrine signals (chemicals |
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Term
|
Definition
| secretory organs composed of aggregations of endocrine cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| cells that have receptors for chemical signals |
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Term
| three classes of hormones |
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Definition
| peptides, amino acids, lipids (look at shapes) |
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Term
| epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted by ___ in the ___ response |
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Definition
| adrenal glands, fight-or-flight |
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Term
| abundance of hormone receptors are regulated by __? two types? |
|
Definition
negative feedback
-downregulation: continuous high level of hormone decreases receptor number
-upregulation: when hrmone secretion is suppressed, receptors increase |
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Term
| negative feedback, positive feedback, feedforward information |
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Definition
-negative feedback: effectors counteract influence that creates error signal
-positive feedback: amplifies response, increases deviation from a set point
-feedforward information: anticipates internal changes and changes set point |
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|
Term
|
Definition
high level of ADH secretion: kidneys resorb water
low level of ADH secretion: kidneys release water in dilute urine
-increase blood pressure
-posterior pituitary |
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Term
|
Definition
-milk ejection
-uterine contractions
-POSITIVE FEEDBACK
-posterior pituitary |
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Term
|
Definition
| -when ADH causes perpheral blood vessel constriction to help elevate blood pressure |
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Term
| anterior pituitary hormones (7) |
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Definition
FLATPEG!
FSH: follicle growth in females, sperm production for males
LH: causes ovulation and testosterone production
ACTH: stimulates adrenal cortex
TSH: stimulates release of T3 & T4 in thyroid
prolactin: promotes milk productive
endorphins: natural pain killers
grwoth hormone: growth of nearly all cells |
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Term
|
Definition
-control all other endocrine glands
-TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH |
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Term
| thyroid gland hormones (2) |
|
Definition
-T3, T4: increases basal metabolic rate (BMR) [know the structures]
-calcitonin: lowers blood calcium |
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|
Term
| anterior pituitary hormones |
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Definition
-ADH: blood pressure and kidney water asborption
-oxytocin: milk ejection, uterine contractions, positive feedback |
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Term
|
Definition
| near trachea, endocrine gland controlled by NEGATIVE FEEDBACK |
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Term
| osteoclasts and osteoblasts |
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Definition
| osteoclasts crack bone down and release calcium, stimulating the osteoblasts, that build bone with circulating calcium |
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Term
| parathyroid gland hormones (1) |
|
Definition
PTH: raises blood calcium, causing osteoclasts to dissolve bone and release Ca
-four PGs are embedded on posterior surface of thyroid gland |
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|
Term
| adrenal cortex hormones (2) |
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Definition
-adolsterone: reduces Na secretion, raises blood pressure
-cortisol: increases CHO, protein, and fat levels in blood (develops from nervous system)
-adrenal glands = adrenal cortex + adrenal medulla |
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Term
|
Definition
| produces epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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Term
|
Definition
| influence blood glucose concentration and other aspects of fuel moecule metabolism (STRESS) |
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Term
|
Definition
| influence extracellular ionic balance (homeostasis) |
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Term
|
Definition
| stimulate sexual development and reproductive activity, secreted in minimal amounts by ADRENAL CORTEX |
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Term
|
Definition
| main mineralocorticoid that stimulates kidney to conserve sodium and excrete potassium |
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Term
|
Definition
| main glucocorticoid that mediates body's response to STRESS |
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Term
| adrenal medulla hormones (2) |
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Definition
| -epinephrine and norepinephrine: stimulate sympathetic actions |
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Term
|
Definition
produced by PINEAL GLAND, between cerebral hemispheres; release occurs in dark, light exposure inhibits release
-involved in biological rhythm, photoperiodicity |
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Term
|
Definition
-estrogens: growth of mother sex organs, causes LH surge
-progesterone: prepare and maintain uterus |
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Term
|
Definition
| testosterone: sex characteristics |
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Term
|
Definition
| HCG: stimulates corpus luteum to grow and release estrogen and progesterone |
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Term
|
Definition
nonspecific, used against many organism
-FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE: skin, toxic molecules
-SECOND LINE: phagocytic cells that ingest foreign cells
-may be always present or rapidly activated |
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|
Term
|
Definition
protein-protein interactions
-distinguishes between substance produced by SELF & NONSELF
-involves antibody proteins and others that bind and destroy pathogens
-slow to develop and long lasting, found only in vertebrate animals |
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Term
|
Definition
| release histamine when damaged; adhere to skin and organ linings |
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Term
|
Definition
| engulf and digest microorganisms; activate t-cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| b lymphocytes, differentiate to produce antibody-producing cells and memory cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| t-lymphocytes, kill virus-infected cells and regulate activity of other white blood cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| attack and lyse virus-infected or cancerous body cells |
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Term
| FOUR KEY PROTEIN TYPES from cell-cell interactions in mammalian defense |
|
Definition
| antibodies, major histocompatibility complex, t-cell receptors, cytokines |
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Term
|
Definition
| proteins that bind specifically to substances identified by immune system, produced by b-cells |
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Term
| major histocompatibility complex (mhc) |
|
Definition
proteins found in two classe:
1) MHC I proteins found on most cell surfaces (nucleated cells) -- antigens bind to Tc
2) MHC II proteins found on most immune system cells (human barcode) -- antigens bind to TH
-MHC proteins are important self-identifying labels |
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Term
|
Definition
| integral membrane protein on t-cells, recognize and bind nonself molecules on other cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| soluble signaling proteins that bind to a cell's surface receptors and alter cell's behavior -- hormonal response, typically cause cell division |
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Term
| innate defensive mechanisms (4) |
|
Definition
-normal flora: bacteria and fungi on body surfaces; compete with pathogens for nutrients and space
-mucus: secreted by mucous membranes to trap microorganisms so cilia can remove them
-defensins: produced by mucous membranes are peptides with hydrophobic domains that are toxic to many pathogens
-lysozyme: enzyme that attacks bacterial walls and found in tears, nasal mucus, and saliva |
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Term
| pathogens that penetrate surfaces encounter: |
|
Definition
more complex nonspecific second defenses
-activation of defensive cells
-secretion of defensive proteins: complement and interferon proteins |
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Term
|
Definition
| recognize pathogen cells and ingest them by phagocytosis |
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Term
|
Definition
~20 proteins in cascade of reactions to help phagocytes and antibodies lyse cells
-hydrophobic domain |
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|
Term
|
Definition
signaling molecules produced by cells infected by a pathogen. increase resistance by:
-binding to receptors on non-infected cell membranes - stimulate signaling path way to inhibit viral reproduction
-stimulating cells to hydrolyze pathogen's proteins to peptides |
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Term
|
Definition
| coordinated response to injury -- isolates damage, recruits cells against pathogens, promotes healing |
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Term
|
Definition
| cytokine that kills target cells and activates immune cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| amino acid derivative that increases permeability of blood vessels so white blood cells can act on tissue |
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Term
|
Definition
| initiate inflammation in nearby tissue, dilate blood vessels, and interact with nerve endings, increasing sensitivity to pain |
|
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Term
| symptoms of inflammation? what do they result from? |
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Definition
redness, swelling, heat, pain, resulting from blood vessel dilation
-phagocytes enter area and engulf pathogens and dead cells
-cytokines may signal the brain to produce fever
-pus is a mixture of leaked fluid and dead cells
-platelets appear near a wound to promote healing |
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Term
| adaptive immunity's four key features |
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Definition
-specific: focuses on present antigens
-diverse: responds to new pathogens
-distinguishes from self and nonself: prevents destruction of self cells
-immunological memory: ability to respond to a later exposure of the same pathogen |
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Term
| adaptive immunity, specificity |
|
Definition
-lymphocytes are crucial
-t-cell receptors and antibodies bind to specific nonself molecules (ANTIGENS)
-specific sites on antigens are called ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS or EPITOPES |
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Term
| adaptive immunity, diversity |
|
Definition
must respond to wide variety of pathogens by activating specific lymphocytes from pool
-diversity generated primarily by DNA changes
-adaptive immune system is "predeveloped" |
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Term
| adaptive immunity, clonal deletion |
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Definition
| any immature b & t cells that show potential to mount an immune response to self antigens undergo apoptosis |
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Term
| adaptive immunity, autoimmunity |
|
Definition
| clonal deletion failure: SLE, hashimoto's thyroiditis |
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Term
| adaptive immunity, immunological mmory |
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Definition
| immune system "remembers" pathogen after first encounter |
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Term
|
Definition
| when antigen first encountered, "naive" lymphocyte proliferate to produce EFFECTOR AND MEMORY cells |
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|
Term
|
Definition
antibodies, contain tetramere of four polypeptides
-in each molecule are two light and two heavy chains, held together by disulfide bonds
-each polypeptide chain has a constant region and a variable region |
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Term
|
Definition
| part of antibody - its amino acid sequence determines general structure and function |
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Term
|
Definition
| part of antibody - its amino acid sequence is different for each specific immunoglobulin, responsible for the specificity |
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Term
|
Definition
| two antigen-binding sites on an immunoglobulin that are identical |
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|
Term
| antibodies can act as a receptor on cell surface |
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Definition
can be secreted from b cells into blood
-some bind to antigen on surface of pathogen
-if antigen free in blood stream, antibodies may use cross-linking function to form large complexes to be destroyed by phagocytes |
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Term
| cellular immune response involves two types of effector t-cells |
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Definition
-T helper cells (tH)
-cytotoxic T cells (Tc) |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Th binding = cellular immune response activation
----produce perforin for lysing and stimulate apoptosis in target cell
Tc binding = death of cell carrying antigen |
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|
Term
|
Definition
produces eggs and hormones, repeats every 28 days
-one oocyte matures and is released
-menopause= end of fertility |
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Term
|
Definition
prepares endometrium for arrival of blastocyst
--egg is viable in oviduct for 10 days |
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|
Term
|
Definition
1) neurons: nerve cells- excitable, gnerate and transmit signals
2) glia: glial cells - provide support and maintain extracellular environment |
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Term
| what makes a cell a neuron? ( 4 things) |
|
Definition
1) compartmentalization of structure and function
2) electrical excitability
3) formation of synaptic connect
4) most are non-replicating |
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Term
| main four regions of most neurons |
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Definition
1) cell body: contains nucleus and organelles (soma)
2) dendrites: receive electrical signals and send them to the body
3) axon: generates and conducts action potentials
4) axon terminal: region at tip of axon that forms synapses and releases neurotransmitters |
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|
Term
|
Definition
-unique to neurons
-origins at axon hillock
-unlike cell body, no rough ER and only a few ribosomes. protein must be sent from cell body
-can very long and can branch
-diameter affects signal speed |
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|
Term
|
Definition
-function as antennae, receive synaptic input from other neurons
-many per cell, form dendritic tree
-number and arrangement vary greatly |
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Term
|
Definition
-where neurons pass information
-presynaptic neuron sends message
-postsynaptic neuron receives message |
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Term
| GLIA and 4 different types |
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Definition
-provide support and maintain homeostasis, outnumber neurons
1) astrocytes: most numerous glia that contribute to blood-brain barrier; protects brain and is permeable to fat soluble compounds like alcohol and anesthetics
2) microglia: provide brain w/ immune defenses since antibodies cannot enter brain
3) oligodendrocytes: glia that insulate axons in brain and spinal cord (CNS)
4) schwann cells: insulate axons in nerves in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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Term
| afferent vs efferent neurons |
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Definition
afferent neurons carry info INTO CNS from sensory cells
efferent neurons carry commands AWAY from CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands |
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Term
|
Definition
| carry commands to skeletal muscles |
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Term
|
Definition
| communicate between neurons, most numerous |
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Term
|
Definition
| method of communication between neurons, difference in electrical charge across membrane |
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Term
|
Definition
| measure of difference in electrical charge between two points |
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Term
|
Definition
| difference in electrical charge on opposite sides of plasma membrane. any net diff = membrane potential |
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Term
|
Definition
| produced by electrical current in cells carried by ions w/ different concentrations in and out membrane |
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Term
|
Definition
membrane potential of resting/inactive neuron
-typically between -60 and -70 mV
-inside of cell is negative at rest |
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Term
|
Definition
| membrane potential at which net movement of an ion ceases under a given set of conditions |
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Term
|
Definition
| respond to change in voltage across membrane |
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Term
| chemically-gated channels |
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Definition
| depend on molecules that bind or alter channel protein |
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Term
| mechanically-gated channels |
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Definition
| respond to force applied to membrane |
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|
Term
| membrane potential > resting potential? |
|
Definition
depolarized
opposite = hyperpolarized |
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|
Term
| graded membrane potentials |
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Definition
| local changes in membrane proportional to input strength |
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|
Term
| voltage gated na+ and k+ channels |
|
Definition
responsible for action potentials at rest, open in response to depolarization
-local depolarization by gated channels in dendrites = grade potential
-spreads to axon hillock, where Na+ v-g channels concentrated |
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|
Term
| action potential features |
|
Definition
-all-or-none event: once threshold reached v-g na+ channels will open, AP occurs
-self-regenerating: it spreads to adjacent membrane regions
-myelination and axon diameter by glial cells increase speed of AP in axons |
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|
Term
|
Definition
regularly spaced gaps where axon not covered in myelin, where na+ and k+ channels clustered. APs jump node to node
--saltatory conduction |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| neutrotransmitters from presynaptic synapse bind to receptors in postsynaptic cell |
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synapse between neurons and muscle fibers |
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|
Term
| postsynaptic cell must... |
|
Definition
...sum excitatory and inhibitory input
-symmation occurs at action hillock
-spatial summation adds up messages at different synaptic sites
-temporal summation adds up potentials at same site over time |
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Term
|
Definition
| CNS - brain and spinal cord |
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|
Term
| peripheral nervous system |
|
Definition
| PNS - cranial and spinal nerves that connect CNS to all tissues |
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Term
|
Definition
1) voluntary division: conscious movements
2) involuntary, autonomic division: physiological functions |
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Term
|
Definition
ANS
1) sympathetic: increased awareness for emergencies -- FIGHT OR FLIGHT
2) parasympathetic: slows heart, lowers blood pressure -- REST AND DIGEST |
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|
Term
|
Definition
-sympathetic postganglionic neurons are noradrenergic -- use norepinephrine as neurotransmitter.
-postganglionic neurons of parasympathetic mostly cholinergic, release acetylcholine. |
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|
Term
| spinal cord anatomy (2 things) |
|
Definition
-gray matter: in center, contains cell bodies of spinal neurons
-white matter: surrounds gray matter, contains axons that conduct info up and down spinal cord |
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|
Term
| simple neural circuit: spinal reflex (example?) |
|
Definition
knee jerk reflex = monosynaptic
afferent pathway carries signal to CNS, and efferent pathway carries command back to the antagonistic muscle, causing the kick |
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|
Term
|
Definition
flexors = bend/ flex
extensors = straighten/ extend |
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|
Term
|
Definition
control relaxation and contraction
-make inhibitory synapses in polysynaptic reflex |
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|
Term
| three regions of embryonic neural tube |
|
Definition
1) forebrain --> cerebrum
2) midbrain
3) hindbrain --> medulla, pons, cerebellum (= brain stem) |
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|
Term
|
Definition
formed by structures in telencephalon
-responsible for basic physiological drives
-hind and midbrain hold structures essential for life
--> amygdala: involved in fear and fear memory
--> hippocampus: short--term memory to long-term memory |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| dominant structure in mammals |
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|
Term
| cerebral cortex (5 things) |
|
Definition
| association cortex, temporal lobe, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| made up of areas that integrate of associate sensory info or memories |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| receives and processes visual and auditory info |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| primary motor cortex controls specific muscles |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| primary somatosensory motor cortex receives touch and pressure info, entire body surface mapped |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| receives and processes visual and auditory info |
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Term
|
Definition
| in frontal lobe -> damage = slow or lost speech |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| in temporal lobe --> damage = insensible speech |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| modification of behavior my experience |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| what nervous system retains |
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