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microstuff
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168
Microbiology
Graduate
09/23/2009

Additional Microbiology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
What is sterilization? What is disinfection?
Definition
Kills everything, does not kill endospores
Term
What is sanitization? What is degermation?
Definition
Cleansing technique that mechanically removes micro-organisms – not sterile but decreases number of microbes, reducing the number of microbes on human skin
Term
What is the difference between a microbicide and a microbistatic agent?
Definition
Kills microbes, temporarily prevents multiplication
Term
What is microbial death?
Definition
The permanent loss of reproductive capability even in optimal conditions
Term
What factors affect the death rate?
Definition
Number of microbes
Nature of microbes in the population
Temperature & pH of environment
Concentration or dosage of agent
Mode of action of the agent
Presence of solvents, organic matter, or inhibitors
Term
Physical control of microbes is accomplished by which methods?
Definition
Heat and radiation
Term
Which type of heat is the most effective and what method uses this type of heat?
Definition
Moist heat under pressure, autoclave
Term
What is the thermal death point?
Definition
Lowest temperature required to kill all microbes in 10 minutes
Term
What is pasteurization?
Definition
Heat applied to liquids to kill potential agents of infection and spoilage.
Term
What is cold sterilization?
Definition
Sterilizing using radiation instead of heat
Term
What is the difference between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation?
Definition
Ionizing radiation penetrates much deeper, non-ionizing radiation is UV light and doesn't penetrate past the surface
Term
What method is used to sterilize the air in hospital isolation rooms?
Definition
Filtration
Term
What are the four cellular targets of antimicrobials
Definition
Cell walls, cell membranes, DNA or RNA synthesis, protein function
Term
What types of microbes are the least resistant? Most Resistant?
Definition
Highest resistance --- Bacterial endospores
Moderate resistance --- Pseudomonas sp., Mycobacterium, tuberculosis, Staphylococcus, aureus, Protozoan cysts.
Least Resistance --- Most bacterial, vegetative cells, Fungal spores, Enveloped viruses, Yeast, Protozoan, trophozoites
Term
Which chemical agents are the closest to ideal agents?
Definition
Glutaraldehye and hydrogen peroxide
Term
What class of chemical agents does chlorine and iodine belong to?
Definition
Halogens
Term
What class of chemical agents does Lysol belong to?
Definition
Phenolics
Term
What is the mechanism of action of alcohols?
Definition
Dissolve membrane lipids, disrupt cell surface tension and denatures proteins
Term
What is a chemiclave?
Definition
Automatic ethylene oxide sterilizer
Term
What is the mechanism of action of hydrogen peroxide?
Definition
Germicidal effects are due to the direct and indirect actions of oxygen which forms free radicals that are highly toxic to microbes
Term
Detergents are useful for which level of antimicrobial effects?
Definition
Low level disinfection only
Term
What types of heavy metals have been used for microbial control?
Definition
Silver and Mercury
Term
What class of chemical agents does Cidex belong to? What is it used for?
Definition
Aldehydes - glutaraldehyde;
Sterilize equipment that cannot tolerate high heat
Term
What is chemotherapy?
Definition
Any chemical used in the treatment, relief of prophylaxis
Term
What is prophylaxis?
Definition
Any chemical used totreat or prevent disease - meds used to prevent disease
Term
What are antibiotics?
Definition
Natural substances produced my micro-organisms that can inhibit or destroy other microbes
Term
What is your name?
Definition
Ha Ha
Term
What is selective toxicity?
Definition
Kills microbial cells without damaging host cells
Term
What are narrow and broad spectrum?
Definition
Narrow= limited range of microbes affected by the drug
broad = large range of microbes affected by the drug
Term
What are some of the characteristics of the ideal antimicrobial drug?
Definition
# 31 Tabel 12.1 in Liz's Review
Term
What are the mechanisms of action of antimicrobials?
Definition
Inhibition of cell wall, DNA/RNA function, protein synthesis and interfere with cell membrane structure or function
Term
Which classes of drugs affect the bacterial cell wall?
Definition
Penicillins and cephalosporins
Term
Which classes of drugs affect DNA/RNA synthesis?
Definition
Fluoroquinolones, Rifampin, antiviral drugs
Term
Which classes of drugs affect protein synthesis?
Definition
tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, erythromycin
Term
Which classes of drugs affect cell membranes?
Definition
Polymyxins, antifungals
Term
Antibiotics that affect cell wall?
Definition
Penicillins, Cephalosporins, beta-lactam antibiotics
Term
Antibiotics that damage the cell membrane
Definition
Polymyxins
Term
Antibiotics that act on DNA or RNA
Definition
Fluoroquinolones, Rifampin
Term
Antibiotics that interfere with protein synthesis
Definition
Aminoglycosides, Tetracycline antibiotics, Chloramphenicol, Macrolides
Term
Antibiotics that block metabolic pathways
Definition
sulfonamides
Term
What is unique abut the structure of penicillins? How do microbes become resistant to penicillins?
Definition
Beta lactam ring - develop enzymes to break the ring
Term
Penicillins are effective against what types of microbes?
Definition
Gram positive cocci - streptococcus, staphylococcus, syphilis, some gram positive rods
Term
What is clavulanic acid? What drug is it found in?
Definition
Chemical that inhibits beta - lactamase enzymes; augmentin
Term
What group of antibiotics account for the majority of all antibiotics administered?
Definition
cephalosporins
Term
How many generations of cephalosporins are there and what is significant about these generations?
Definition
4
, first gen= gram pos organisms
second, third, and fourth gen
increases effectiveness against gram negatives
Term
What are 2 examples of aminoglycosides?
Definition
Streptomycin and gentamicin
Term
What are the limiting factors of tetracyclines?
Definition
GI disruption of normal flora and staining of teeth
Term
Which drugs are synthetic rather than natural antibiotics?
Definition
Sulfanomides, fluoroquinolones, trimethoprim, dapsone
Term
Which drugs are used to treat fungal infections
Definition
Amphoteracin B, nystatins, and azoles
Term
Which drugs are classified as macrolides?
Definition
Erythromycin, clindamycin, vancomyin, rifampin, clarithomycin, azithromycin
Term
Which drugs are used form protozoan infections?
Definition
Quinines, metronidazole
Term
what is the mechanism of action of drugs used for helminth infections?
Definition
Interfer with their metabolism so they are weakened and able to be excreted from the body
Term
What is the capital of New Mexico?
Definition
Will not be on the test ( I don't think )
Term
What is the mechanism of action of antivirals?
Definition
Inhibit viral penetration, multiplication or assembly
Term
How is drug resistance acquired? (4 ways)
Definition
Drug inactivation
decreased permeability/increased elimination
change of metabolic pattern
change in drug receptors
Term
What is natural selection and how does it effect drug resistance?
Definition
The resistance microbes survive and replicate
Term
What are the 3 categories of adverse host-drug reactions?
Definition
Direct toxicity to organs
allergic responses
changes to the normal flora/ superinfection
Term
Most important considerations in selecting a medication?
Definition
The nature of the microbe, the susceptibility of the microbe, overall medical condition of the patient, toxicity of the drug
Term
What is the MIC?
Definition
Minimum inhibitory concentration - smallest effective dose of a drug against a specific microbe
Term
What is the therapeutic index?
Definition
the ratio of the toxic dose to the effective dose - the smaller the TI the more risk of toxicity to the patient
Term
What is the difference between a true pathogen and an opportunistic pathogen?
Definition
True pathogen (adequate infectious dose) will cause in an otherwise healthy person, opportunistic only causes disease when the immune system is compromised
Term
What is the normal flora and where does it occur?
Definition
Beneficial bacteria that are present on the skin, in the GI tract, upper respiratory tract and GU tracts
Term
Where are the Staphylococcus spp found?
Definition
Skin, mouth, upper respiratory tract, GU
Term
Where are coliforms found?
Definition
GI tract mostly and small amount on urinary tract
Term
What are the primary events in the infectious process?
Definition
Portal of entry
invasion of tissue
portal of exit
Term
What does Beta 2 blockers do?
Definition
Are you kidding me
Term
What is an infectious dose?
Definition
The amount of pathogen required to cause disease in the host
Term
What are the mechanisms of adhesion of pathogens?
Definition
Fimbriae, capsules, spikes, hooks, flagella
Term
What are exoenzymes?
Definition
Enzymes secreted by the pathogens tat damage tissues and promote invasion
Term
What are endotoxins and exotoxins?
Definition
Endotoxins are chemical secreted when the pathogenic cells lyses/dies; exotoxins are secreted by active/live pathogens
Term
What is the difference between localized, systemic and focal infections?
Definition
Localized= infection stays in portal of entry
Systemic= infection spreads to several area
Focal= infection stays in portal of entry but releases toxins that effect other organs
Term
What is the difference between sign and a symptom
Definition
Sign= objective finding noted by the observer
symptoms= subjective findings reported by the patient
Term
What does the acronym STORCH stand for?
Definition
These diseases that can infect the fetus from the mother
Syphilis, Toxoplasmosis, others ( Hep B, HIV, chlamydia), Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes simplex virus
Term
What are some common portals of exit? Is the portal of exit the same as the portal of entry?
Definition
The pathogen may leave the body by a different portal than used for the entry - respiratory and salivary, skin scales, fecal, urogenital tract, blood
Term
What is latency? What are sequelae?
Definition
The pathogen remains in the body in a dormant state - it may still be shed and the person is a chronic carrier
Sequelae - is Long- term permanent damage from the pathogen
Term
What is prevalence? What is incidence?
Definition
The number of existing cases in certain population
The number of new cases compared to the general healthy population
Term
What is the mortality rate? Morbidity rate?
Definition
Total number of deaths in a population due to a certain disease/ Total number of cases afflicting members of the population
Term
What is endemic? Epidemic? Pandemic?
Definition
The frequency of the disease is stable in a certain geographical area
The frequency is increased in a certain area
The disease has spread across continents
Term
What is a disease carrier? What is vector? What is a fomite?
Definition
An asymptomatic person who carries the pathogen and is able to transmit it
Something that is infected and transmits it between people ( tick, mosquito )
Term
What is a nosocomial infection? What are the three most common sites of a nosocomial infection?
Definition
Disease acquired during a hospital stay
Respiratory tract, urinary tract, surgical incisions
Term
What are the 3 lines of host defenses?
Definition
First line - physical, chemical and genetic barriers
Second line - inflammatory response, Interferons, Phagocytosis
Third line - acquired/specific immunity
Term
Which lines of the defense are inborn/ innate?
Definition
only the first two lines of defense are inborn/innate
third line is acquired
Term
What are some examples of physical barriers?
Definition
Skin, rapid regeneration of mucous membranes, nasal hairs, ciliary defense in the respiratory tract, flushing by saliva, tears, sweat, vomiting, defacation, urination
Term
What are some examples of chemical barriers?
Definition
Sebaceous secretions are antimicrobial, stomach acid (HCl), lysozyme in tears, lactic acid in sweat
Term
What are the genetic defenses?
Definition
some pathogens can only infect certain species
some make people immune to disease
Term
What 3 functions is the immune system responsible for?
Definition
Surveillance of the body
Recognition of foreign material
Destruction of foreign material
Term
What are markers and why are they important?
Definition
proteins and/or carbohydrates that enable the immune system to identify a foreign particle
Term
Which body compartments are involved in the immune function?
Definition
Reticuloendothelial system (RE)
extracellular fluid
bloodstream
lymphatic system
Term
RE system
Definition
# 88
Term
What 2 systems are included in the circulatory system?
Definition
Blood stream and lymphatic system
Term
Which type of blood cells are the most responsible for immune functions?
Definition
Leukocytes - wbc's
Term
Which cells are agranulocytes? granulocytes?
Definition
Agranulocytes - Lymphocytes and monocytes
granulocytes - Neutrophils, Eosinophils, basophils
Term
Which cells are the largest phagocytes and what is their origin?
Definition
Macrophages- differentiated from monocytes
Term
What types of cells do lymphocytes differentiate into?
Definition
B- cells and T- cells
Term
What role does the eosinophil play in the immune system?
Definition
Destroy eucaryotic pathogens especially helminth worms and fungi
Term
What role do lymphocytes play in the immune system?
Definition
The third line of defense- specific/acquired immunity
Term
Which cells are involved in humoral immunity
Definition
B-cells
Term
Which cells are involved in cell mediated immunity
Definition
T -cells
Term
What functions are macrophages responsible for?
Definition
Phagocytic and killing functions
processing foreign material and presenting them to lymphocytes
secreting substances that activate other cells of the immune system (cytokines, interleukins)
Term
What is diapedesis?
Definition
Ability to migrate out of the bloodstream into tissues
Term
What is chemotaxis?
Definition
leukocytes migrate to the site of inflammation by following chemical stimuli
Term
What are the major functions of the lymphatic system?
Definition
Provides an auxillary route for return of extracellular fluid to the circulatory system
Acts as a drain off system for the inflammatoy response
Renders surveillance, recognition, and protection against foreign material through the use of lymphocytes, phagocytes, and antibodies
Term
Where does the lymph come from? How is it circulated?
Definition
From plasma
by skeletal muscle contraction
Term
Where in the body is lymphoid tissue?
Definition
Lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, GI tract (GALT), tonsils
Term
What are the functions of the inflammatory response?
Definition
Mobilize and attract immune components to the site of injury
Set in motion mechanisms to repair tissue damage and localize and clear away harmful substances
Destroy microbes and block their further invasion
Term
What is the inflammatory response?
Definition
A reaction to any traumatic event in the tissues
Term
What are the classic signs of inflammation
Definition
Rubor-redness (erythema)
Calor- warmth (heat)
Tumor- swelling (edema)
Dolor - pain
Term
What substance initiates fever? What are some examples of these?
Definition
Pyrogens- exogenous (pathogens, blood, vaccines) or endogenous ( liberated by wbc's during phagocytosis- interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor)
Term
What are some benefits of a fever?
Definition
Inhibits multiplication of pathogens, impedes nutrition of bacteria, increases host's metabolism and stimulates immune reactions
Term
Which cells are considered phagocytes?
Definition
Neutrophils and macrophages ( which have a larger role in the immune system than the neutrophils)
Term
What are histiocytes?
Definition
Specialized macrophages that remain in certain tissues. Examples: langerhans=skin; kupffers=liver; alveolar=lungs
Term
What are the functions of phagocytes?
Definition
Survey tissues for microbes, remove damaged tissue, extract antigens from foreign material
Term
What is interferon?
Definition
family of proteins produced by leukocytes and fibroblasts that inhibit the reproduction of viruses by degrading viral RNA or blocking the synthesis of viral proteins
Term
What are the different types of interferons?
Definition
Alph, Beta, Gamma
Term
What is the complement system? How does it function?
Definition
complex defense mechanism with multiple proteins involved that produces a cascade reaction
Term
What are the 3 stages of the complement cascade?
Definition
Initiation
amplification and cascade
membrane attack
Term
What is the final result of the complement system?
Definition
Formation of a membrane attack complex to make holes in the cell membrane of bacteria, cells and enveloped viruses.
Term
What is the difference between the 3 complement pathways?
Definition
difference is the substance that initiated the cascade reaction
Term
What is an interferon?
Definition
All classes are produced in response to viruses, RNA immune products and other antigens
Bind to cell surfaces and induce changes in genetic expression
Inhibit the expression of cancer genes and have tumor suppressor effects
Alpha and Beta types stimulate phagocytes and gamma type is an immune regulator of macrophages, T and B-cells
Term
What is the line of host defense? What are the two features that most characterize this defense?
Definition
Acquired specific immunity; specificity to the anitigen and memory
Term
What are the stages of acquired specific immunity?
Definition
Development of the lymphocyte system
Processing of Antigens and clonal Selection
Activation of lymphocytes and clonal expansion
antibody production
cell- mediated immunity
Term
What are receptors?
Definition
Protein or carbohydrate markers on the surface of cells
Term
What are the functions of receptors?
Definition
they perceive and attach to foreign molecules, recognition of self molecules, to receive and transmit chemical messages, to aid in cellular development
Term
What is the clonal selection theory and what does it result in?
Definition
It is preprogrammed lymphocyte specificity, existing in the genetic makeup before an antigen has ever entered the sytem
Each genetically different type of lymphocyte expresses a single specificity- Undifferentiated lymphocytes undergo a continuous series of divisions and genetic changes that generate hundreds of millions of different cell types
Term
What is the specific B-cell receptor?
Definition
Immunoglobulins- large glycoprotein molecules that serve as the specific receptors of B-cells and as antibodies
Term
How are immunoglobulins synthesized?
Definition
A heavy chain is bound with a light chain then the 2 heavy chains are bound together forming a Y structure
Term
What are antigen binding sites?
Definition
Highly variable in shape to fit very specific antigens - at the ends of the Y structure of the Ig
Term
What are MHC receptors? What do the 3 groups of receptors react with?
Definition
Receptors found on all cells except RBC's
3 types are:
Class I - markers that display unique characteristics of self molecules and regulation of immune reactions. Required for T lymphocytes
Class II - receptors that recognize and react with foreign antigens. Located primarily on macrophages and B cells. Involved in presenting antigen to T cells
Class III - secreted complement components, C2 and C4
Term
How are lymphocytes differentiated initially?
Definition
Maturation occurs differently for B and T cells:
B cells in the bone marrow and T cells in the thymus
Term
What are the different classes of T-cell receptors called and why are they significant?
Definition
CD receptors ( cluster and differentiation ) - Type of receptors dictates what is recognized by the T - cell
Term
What are the characteristics of an antigen?
Definition
Provokes an immune reaction
perceived as foreign by the immune system
large enough to provoke an immune reaction
Term
What is an antigenic determinant?
Definition
Small molecular group that is recognized by lymphocytes. It is the primary signal that the molecule is foreign. An antigen has many of these
Term
What is a hapten?
Definition
Are small molecules that are usually not antigenic unless attached to a larger carrier
Term
What is an allergen?
Definition
Antigen that provokes allergic reactions
Term
Are most antigen T-cell dependant or do they react directly with B-cells?
Definition
Most are T-cell dependant-only a few can interact with B-cells directly
Term
How is an antigen processed and presented?
Definition
Must be processed by phagocytes ( dendrites ) called antigen presenting cells ( APC ). An APC/dendrite alters the antigen and attaches it to its MHC receptor where it can be presented to the B and T-cells.
Term
What are Interleukins? How are they involved in antigen processing and presentation?
Definition
These are peptides that carry signals between leukocytes
Term
What are the different types of Interleukins?
Definition
Interleukin-1 is secreted by APC to activate T(sub)H cells; Interleukin-2 is produced by T(sub)H to activate B and other T cells
Term
What happens to the B-cell once it is activated?
Definition
They enter the cell cycle in preparation for mitosis and clonal expansion. Divisions give rise to plasma cells that secrete antibodies and memory cells that can react to the same antigen later
Term
What 2 fragments make up the structure of the antibody? What do they attach to?
Definition
Fab - antigen binding fragment binds the antigen and Fc - crystallizable fragment binds to various cells and molecules of the immune system
Term
What are functions of antibodies?
Definition
unite with, immobilze, call attention to, or neutralize the antigen; specifically opsonization, neutralization, agglutination and complement fixation
Term
What is opsonization?
Definition
Antigens become coated with specific antibodies so that they will be more readily recognized by phagocytes to dispose of them
Term
Neutralization?
Definition
antibodies fill the surface receptors on a microorganism to prevent it from functioning normally
Term
What is agglutination?
Definition
Cross-linking cells into larger clumps
Term
Complement fixation?
Definition
The interaction of an antibody with the complement can result in the specific rupturing of cells and some viruses
Term
How many classes of immunoglobulins are there? Which class is more prevalent?
Definition
Five, IgG
Term
Which class of Ig's is the first responder with an initial anitgen encounter?
Definition
IgM
Term
Which class of Ig's is in many secretions of the body and is present in breast milk?
Definition
IgA
Term
Which class of Ig's has the largest molecules?
Definition
IgM
Term
Which class of Ig's are produced by memory B-cells in a second exposure?
Definition
IgG
Term
Which class of Ig's interact with mast cells and basophils and is involved with allergic responses?
Definition
IgE
Term
What is cell mediated immunity? What cells are involved with it?
Definition
Rather than making antibodies to control foreign antigens, the T-cells act directly against antigens and foreign cells
Term
What are the 3?????????? types of T-cells?
Definition
Helper, suppressor, cytotoxic and delayed hypersensitivity T-cells
Term
How are the different types of T-cells differentiated?
Definition
The functions of T-cells vary in their CD receptors and sensitivity to cytokines
Term
Which receptor is common to all t-cells? Which t-cells have CD4? CD8?
Definition
C2 is common to all T-cells; T-helper cells have only CD4 receptors; T-cytotoxic cells have only C8 receptors
Term
What is the most prevalent T-cell? What is significant abut it?
Definition
T-helper cells ; the conductor of the immune response by assisting other T and B-cell. Reacts directly by receptor contact and indirectly by releasing cytokines such as interleukin-2
Term
Are you getting tired yet?
Definition
yes
Term
How does a patient with an HIV infection become immunocompromised?
Definition
HIV depresses and destroys the T-helper cells
Term
What is the function of T-cytotoxic cells?
Definition
Foreign receptors are presented to it and it mounts a direct attack against the target cell by secreting perforins that lyse cells by creating pores in the target cell membrane
Term
What is the funtion of T-suppressor cells?
Definition
Inhibit the actions of other T-cells and B-cells and regulate the immune response by producing protein inhibitors that prevent lymphocytes and macrophages from reacting with antigens
Term
What is the function of T-delayed hypersensitivity cells?
Definition
Responsible for allergies occurring several hours or days after contact such as the tuberculin reaction (TB test)
Term
What is natural immunity?
Definition
Acquired as part of normal life experiences
Term
Artificial immunity?
Definition
acquired through a medical procedure such as a vaccine
Term
What is active immunity?
Definition
Results when a person is challenged with Ag (???)that stimulates production of AB
Term
Passive immunity?
Definition
preformed AB are donated to an individual
Term
What type of immunity is the result of an infection and recovery?
Definition
Natural active immunity
Term
What type of immunity is the result of pregnancy and lactation?
Definition
Natural passive immunity
Term
What type of immunity is the result of a vaccination?
Definition
Artificial active immunity
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