DNA is composed of

          -nucleotide (phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, nitrogenous base)

          -double stranded helix

          -strands are antiparallel, held together by hydrogen bonds between AT and CG (reads 5-3)

-Anabolic polymerization: building up, monomer of polymer (nucleotide to DNA)

-complementary structure of 2 strands

-semiconservative: new strand composed of one original strand and daughter strand

RNA: single stranded, nucleotide uses ribose, adenine uses uracil

DNA: uses deoxiribose, replace thymine with uracil

1) messenger RNA (mRNA): carries genetic information to ribosome

2) ribosomal RNA (rRNA): found in the ribosome

3) transfer RNA (tRNA): transfers amino acid to ribosomes, where protein products is synthesized

-Transcription: information in DNA is copied as RNA nucleotide sequene (DNA transcribed to RNA)

-Translation: polypeptides synthesized from RNA nucleotide sequence

(RNA translated to form polypeptides)

Triplet of mRNA nucleotides that codes for specific amino acids. AAA is a codon for lysine

-Lactose (lac) operon is an inducible operon (not usually transcribed and must be activated by inducers).

-it includes a promoter, an operatior and three genes that encode for proteins involved in the catabolism of lactose.

-the operon is controlled by a regulatory gene that is constantly transcribed and translated to produce a repressor protein that attaches to DNA at the lac operator.

- this repressor prevent RNA polymerase from moving beyond the promoter, stopping synthesis of mRNA. Thus, lac operon is usually inactive.

-Physical or chemical agent that introduces a mutation that changes the microbe's phenotype.

- (agents that cause a mutation)

-errors in replication and repair as well as from recombination in which relatively long streches of DNA move among chromosomes, plasmids, and viruses, introducing framesheft mutations.

-point mutation: (most common) a single base at one point in the

DNA sequence is replaced by another base

-frameshift mutations: one or several base pairs are deleted or inserted into the DNA sequence. Shifts the "translational reading frame" (most harmful)

Fungi:

         - Cell type: Eukaryotic

         -Cell membrane: Sterols present

         -Cell wall: Glucans;mannans; chitin (no peptidoglycan)

         -Spores: produce a wide variety of sexual and cosexual reproductive spores

         -Metabolism: limited to heterotrophic; aerobic, facultatively anaerobic

         -Sensitivity to antibiotics: grisofulvin

Bacteria:

         -cell type: Prokaryotic

         -Cell membrane: Sterols absent, except in Mycoplasma

         -Cell wall: Peptidoglycan

         -Spores: Endospores (not for reproduction); some aseual reproductive spores

         -Metabolism: Heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic, photoautotrophic, aerobic, fcultatively anaerobic, anaerobic

         -Sensitivity to antibiotics: often sensitive to penicillins, tetracyclines, and aminoglycosides

Yeast:

           -Cellular: unicellular

           -growth temperatures: 37 celcius

           - colonial morphology: round to oval shape, reproduce by budding, asexual sporulation.

Molds:

            -Cellular: multicellular

           -growth temperatures: 25 celcius

           -colonial morphology: hyphae are vegetative or aerial, reproduce by sexual and asexual sporulation.

-dimorphism: fungi that produce two types of thalli (two shaped)

 -Five dimorphic fungi that cause disease in human:

1) Cocciciodes immitis

2) Histoplasma capsulation

3) Blastomyces dermatitidus

4) Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis

5) Sporothrix schencili

-Zygomycete: produce Zygospores (ex: Rhizopus; bread mold)

-Ascomycete: produce Ascospores (ex: Penicillium, Saccharomyces)

-Basidiomycete: produce Basidiospores (ex:mushrooms, Cryptococcus)

-Deuteromycete (anamorphs): asexual spores (ex: Stachybotrys, Pneumocystis, Reclassified using DNA technology

-Conidiospore: produced externally (Arthrospore, Blastoconidium, Chlamydospore)

-sporangiospore: produced in sac

1)Systermic mycoses: deep within body

2)Subcutaneous mycoses: beneath skin

3)Cutaneous mycoses: (dermatopytosis) affect hair, skin, nails

4)Superficial mycoses: localized on outermost skin layers/hair shaft

5)Opportunistic mycoses: caused by normal microbiota or fungi that are normally norpathogenic

State the etologic agent and geographic location of:

1)San Joaquin Valley feve

 2)Ohio Valley fever

 3)Chicago disease, North American Blastomycosis

 4)South American Blastoycosis

1) San Joaquin Valley fever: Coccidioides immitis,

2) Ohio Valley fever: Histophasma capsulatum, found in eastern United States, Africa and Asia

3) Chicago disease, North American Blastomycosis: Blastomyces dermatitidis, southeastern United States north to Canada

4) South American Blastomycosis: Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, southern Mexic and regions of South America

1) Trichophyton

2) Epidermophyton

3) Microsporum

1) Cryptoccal meingitis: follows dissemination of the fungus to the CNS

     -common clinical form of cryptococcal infection

2) Rose thorn (Gardener's) disease:

    -Sporothrix schenkii

   - Subcutaneous Mycosis

3) Ringworm or "Tinea" (Dermatophytosis): infect skin, hair, nails

    - Trichophyton, Epidermophyton, Microsporum

     -Cutaneous Mycoses

4) Candidiasis (Thrush, Vaginitis, Diaper rash): infect skin and mucous membranes

    -common of the microbiota of the skin and mucous membranes

Virus:

         - smaller than bacteria

         - has 1 nucleic acid either DNA or RNA never both

         -not a cell, no cytoplasmic membrane, cytosol, organelles

         -cannot carry out metabolic pathway, cannot reproduce independently

          -cannot grow on agar

         - not susceptible to antibiotics

Bacteria:

         -has DNA and RNA

         -prokaryote

Describe the parts of viral particle and their purpose:

         1) Genome

         2) Capsid

         3) Envelope

         4) virion

1) Genome: genetic material in a cell or virus. Nucleic acid that it has. RNA or DNA (never both) single/double, circular/linear

2) Capsid: (protein coat) repeating proteing subunits (copsomeres) protection and attachment

3)envelope:made up of ophospholipid bilayer. Membrane surrounding the viral cpaid.

4)Virion: a virus outside of a cell, consisting of a proteinaceous capsid surrounding a nucleic acid core.

Explain the follwing terms.

1) host range

2) tissue tropism

3) burst time

 4) burst size

 5) latency

1) host range: type of host that it can infect. Collection of hosts that an organism can utilize as a partner

2) tissue tropism: cell type or tissue within a host cell that it can infect. The cells and tissues of a host which support growth of a particular virus

3)burst time: Time that virus take from attachment to host cell to release.

4) burst size: number of virus release.

5) latency: a process that animal viruses that may remain dormant (not active) in cells. State of being present but not visible. (pg. 394)

-Bacteriophage lytic: phage causes lysis and death of host cell. (short term)

-Lysogenic cycles: prophage DNA incorporates into host chromosome. (chronic)

1) Attachment: viruses attaches to cell membrane

2) Entry: Whole viral particle enters cell

3) Uncoating: Capsid is degraded

4) Synthesis: Production of nucleic acid and proteins

5) Assembly: Nucleic acid and capsid proteins assemble

6) Release: By budding (enveloped viruses) or rupture.

1) Plaque formation (phage typing): determination of the phage type of a bacterium.

2) Cytopathic effect: Visual evidence of viral-infected cells. Refers to degenerative (quality change, sick cell) changes in cells, especially in tissue culture, and may be associated with the multiplication of certain viruses.

3) Inclusion bodies: Marker in cell that we can see. A particle that takes a characteristic stain, found in a virus-infected cell.

4) Cultivating methods:

5) Serologic tests: Detect patient antibodies against viruses. Use antibodies to identify viruses.

A) antiviral drugs:

     -prevent attachment

     -base analogs

     -reverse transcriptase inhibitors

    -protease inhibitors

    -neuraminidase inhibitors

B) interferon:

   1 -viral RNA stimulate the host to synthesize inerferon while also directing replication of new viruses.

   2-Interferon is synthesized and released from the cell

   3-Viruses are released follwing replication

  4) Interferon binds to a neighboring cell

   5) Interferon includes the cell to express the genes for antiviral proteins.

  6) Antiviral proteins (AVPs) are synthesized

  7) The antiviral proteins block viral protein synthesis and thus interfer with viral replication

-Inactivated viruses: "killed" virus by heat or chemical

-Attenuated viruses: "weakened" virus

-Viral subunits: protein molecules produced by genetic engineering.

- Viruses: agent that replicates only within the cells of living hosts, mainly bacteria, plants, and animals: composed of an RNA or DNA core, a protein coat, and, in more complex types, a surrounding envelope.

-Viroids: tiny fragments of nucleic acid known to cause disease in plants. Similar to RNA viruses, but lack capsid.

-Prions: proteinaceous infectious particle, inherited and transmissible by ingestion, transplant and surgical instruments. Composed of single protein PrP.