Term
What methods are there for quantifying viruses? |
|
Definition
Titer: a measurement of the number of infectious units per volume Plaque Assay: analogous to the bacterial colony; one way to measure virus infectivity. **Plaques: clear zones that develop on lawns of host cells. - lawns can be bacterial or tissue culture - each plaque results from an infection from a single virus particle |
|
|
Term
Intact animal methods for virus quantification. |
|
Definition
Procedure: 1)serial dilution of virus sample (generally at 10 fold dilutions) 2) inject samples into several sensitive animals 3) after incubation period: fraction of dead and live animals at each dilution is tabulated. End tabulations are rated in the form of LD_% (lethal dose...% subjects deceased) |
|
|
Term
Phases of viral replication. |
|
Definition
- Attachment (absorption) of virus to a suitable cell - entry (penetration) of the virion or its nucleic acid - Synthesis of virus nucleic acid and protein by cell metabolism as redirected by virus - (maturation) -> Assembly of capsids and packaging of viral genomes into new virions - release of mature virions from host cell |
|
|
Term
What type of growth curve is characterized for virus replication? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What are the steps in the virus replication growth curve? What occurs in each step |
|
Definition
Latent period: Eclipse - Early enzymes --> Nucleic acids --> Protein coats and then maturation - assembly and release. |
|
|
Term
Explain the features of viral attachment to cells. |
|
Definition
- attachment of virion to host cell is highly specific...Requires complementary receptors on the surface of a susceptible host - Receptors on host cell carry out normal functions for cell (ie uptake proteins, cell to cell interactions) - attachment results in changes to both virus and cell surface to facilitate penetration |
|
|
Term
What is a permissive cell? |
|
Definition
a host cell that allows the complete replication cycle of a virus to occur |
|
|
Term
Explain the viral attachment and penetration of Bacteriophage T4. |
|
Definition
Bacteriophage T4: Virus of E. Coli bacteria
- attach to cells via tail fibers that interact with polysaccharides on E. coli cell envelope - Tail fibers retract and tail core makes contact with E. coli cell wall - Lysozyme-like enzymes forms small pore in peptidoglycan - tail sheath contracts and viral DNA passes into cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
What DNA destruction system is only effective against double-stranded DNA viruses? |
|
Definition
Bacterial Restriction-modification systems |
|
|
Term
What are restriction enzymes? |
|
Definition
Restriction endonucleases - cleaves DNA at specific sequences. |
|
|
Term
What is the restriction-modification system? |
|
Definition
it is a bacterial defense system against virus penetration. DNA destruction system that is only effective against double-stranded DNA viruses |
|
|
Term
What are the viral methods of evading bacterial restriction systems? (like the restriction-modification system) |
|
Definition
- Glycosylation or methylation (IE chemical modification of viral DNA) - Production of proteins that inhibit host cell restriction enzymes |
|
|
Term
Explain the baltimore classification scheme. (Class I to class VII) |
|
Definition
Class I - Double Stranded (ds) DNA viruses Class II - Single Stranded (ss) DNA viruses Class III - dsRNA Class IV and V - ssRNA (+ or -) Class VI are retroviruses Class VII are dsDNA viruses that replicate thru RNA intermediates |
|
|
Term
What are the steps in the production of viral nucleic acid and protein. |
|
Definition
- Generation of mRNA occurs first - Viral genome serves as template for viral mRNA - in some RNA viruses, viral RNA itself is the mRNA **in some cases essential transcriptional enzymes are contained in the virion |
|
|
Term
What is a positive strand RNA virus? |
|
Definition
Single-stranded RNA genome with same orientation as its mRNA |
|
|
Term
Negative strand RNA Virus: |
|
Definition
single-stranded RNA genome with orientation complementary to its mRNA |
|
|
Term
What are early proteins and late proteins? What are their functions? |
|
Definition
Early proteins and late proteins are proteins formed during a viral life cycle, after the synthesis of viral mRNA Early proteins: -Synthesized soon after infection -necessary for replication of virus nucleic acid -typically catalytic functions -**synthesized in smaller amounts
Late proteins: - typically structural components, including virus protein coat - synthesized in larger amounts |
|
|
Term
Most bacteriophages consist of what type of genome (ss or ds) (RNA or DNA) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Are most bacteriophages naked, or do they possess lipid envelopes? |
|
Definition
Most are naked but some do possess lipid envelopes. |
|
|
Term
What are the different viral life cycles? |
|
Definition
temperate and virulent. Virulent: viruses lyse host cells after infection. Temperate: Virus replicates their genome in tandem with host genome and without killing host. IE can undergo a stable genetic relationship within the host --> but can also kill cells during lytic cycle. |
|
|
Term
What is T4? What is its genome structure? |
|
Definition
T4 is a virulent bacteriophage that is also related to T6 and T2 - Genome is dsDNA that is circularly permuted and terminally redundant |
|
|
Term
What does the fact that T4's genome is circularly permuted and terminally redundant effect? |
|
Definition
Both factors effect genome packaging. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A concatemer is a long continuous DNA molecule that contains multiple copies of the same DNA sequences linked in series. |
|
|
Term
What is the modified DNA base that T4 contains? What is this the site for? |
|
Definition
5-hydroxymethylcytosine (HOH2C) **this DNA is resistent to virtually all known restriction enzymes It is the site for glucosylation (on the hyroxyl group) |
|
|
Term
The T4 genome can be divided into what parts? |
|
Definition
Early, middle and late proteins. Early and middle proteins: enzymes needed for DNA replications and transcription Late proteins: head and tail proteins. Enzymes required to liberate mature phage particles. |
|
|
Term
Why are the T-. bacteriophages labeled T-? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
State where most virus genes are not expressed and virus genome (prophage) is replicated in synchrony with host chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
State when bacteriophage genome is integrated into the host genome and sits there passively. |
|
|
Term
How can a bacteriophage enter into the prophage state? What keeps their genes from being expressed? |
|
Definition
Integrated through site recombination. Genetic regulation makes it possible. It is repressed by negative regulation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a bacteria containing a prophage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A virus with a lytic pathway and a prophage state --> Ie a virus that is able to be integrated into the host chromosome and who's genome will be regulated thru negative regulation. |
|
|
Term
Describe bacteriophage lambda and its infection methods. |
|
Definition
- Linear, dsDNA genome - Has complementary, single-stranded regions 12 nucleotides long at the 5' terminus of each strand - Upon penetration, DNA ends-base pair, forming the (cos) site and the DNA ligates and forms double stranded circle - when lambda is lysogenic, its DNA integrates into E. coli chromosome at the lambda attachment site (att(lambda)) - when it enters lytic pathway, lambda synthesizes long, linear concatemers of DNA by rolling circle replication |
|
|
Term
How is the regulation of lytic vs. lysogenic events occur in lambda? What are the key repressor proteins? |
|
Definition
Through complex genetic switch cl protein: (the lambda repressor) causes repression of lambda lytic events Cro repressor: controls activation of lytic events |
|
|
Term
What are the consequences of virus infection in animal cells? |
|
Definition
Persistent infections: release of virions from host cell does not result in cell lysis (infected cell remains alive and continues replicating virus) Latent infections: delay between infection by virus and lytic events Transformation: conversion of normal cell into TUMOR cell... (loss of control over cell growth) Cell fusion: two or more cells become one with many nuclei |
|
|
Term
What are retroviruses? What is unique about their genome? |
|
Definition
Retroviruses are viruses that replicate through a DNA intermediate - contain reverse transcriptaste (copies information from its RNA genome into DNA) - virion contains specific tRNA molecules UNIQUE GENOME: two identical ssRNA molecules of the + orientation *contains specific genomes: gag: encodes structural proteins pol: encodes reverse transcriptase env: encode envelope proteins |
|
|
Term
what is a retroviruses process of replication? |
|
Definition
1) entrance into the cell 2) removal of virion envelope @ membrane 3) Reverse transcriptase of one of the two RNA genomes 4) integration of retroviral DNA into host genome 5) transcription of retroviral DNA 6) assembly and packaging of genomic RNA 7) Budding of enveloped virions; release from cell |
|
|
Term
What are the methods of physical antimicrobial control? |
|
Definition
heat sterilization radiation sterilization filter sterilization *stops acute food poisoning *reduces damage done to materials in the industrial world |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A gram + bacteria that causes botulism *only infects host if consumed in infected food (otherwise it pasts right through us) |
|
|
Term
What are sulphate reducing bacteria? |
|
Definition
Anaerobic bacteria who use sulphate as terminal electrons. **in cream separater plants creates dipoles across the colony and corrodes the metal in those high-pressure pipes |
|
|
Term
What are the different forms of heat sterilization? |
|
Definition
Sterilization : killing all viable organisms within a growth medium Inhibition : effectively limiting microbial growth Decontamination : the treatment of an object to make it safe to handle Disinfection : Directly targets the removal of all pathogens, not necessarily all microorganisms |
|
|
Term
What is the most widely used form of sterilization? Describe it |
|
Definition
heat sterilization - High temperatures denature molecules - Amount of time required to reduce viability 10-fold is called decimal reduction time - ** spore-forming bacteria can survive heat that would rapidly kill vegetative cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the time at which the temperature kills all of the sample organisms. **depends on what the initial concentration of the organism is |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
An autoclave is a sealed device that uses steam under pressure for heat pasteurization. - allows temps to exceed 100 C |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Pasteurization is the process of using precisely controlled heat to reduce the microbial load in heat-sensitive liquids... doesn't kill all organisms though! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Microwaves, UV, Xrays, Gamma rays can reduce microbial growth **UV is NON-PENETRATING!!! |
|
|
Term
Ionizing radiation sterilization |
|
Definition
- electromagnetic radiation that produce ions and other reactive molecules - generates electrons, hydroxyl radicals, and hydride radicals
**Amount of energy required to reduce viability tenfold is analogous to D value |
|
|
Term
Filter sterilization: What types are there. |
|
Definition
Pores of filter are too small for organisms to pass through Pores allow liquid or gas to pass through - DEPTH FILTERS --> Thick HEPA filters - MEMBRANE FILTERS -->Very thin: functions more like a sieve --> filtration by syringe, pump or vacuum |
|
|
Term
How can antimicrobial agents be classified? |
|
Definition
Antimicrobial agents can be classified as either: Bacteriostatic (stop growths), bacteriocidal(kills viability of cells) or bacteriolytic (bursts cells) |
|
|
Term
What is MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) |
|
Definition
The smallest amount of agent needed to inhibit growth of a microorganism --> varies with the organism used, inoculum size, temp, pH, etc.
*the way to do this procedure is by taking many vials and adding different concentrations (2 fold dilutions) of agent in each vial. The one that results in no growth is the MIC.
**gold standard! |
|
|
Term
What is disk diffusion assay? |
|
Definition
A method of testing chemical growth assay. - antimicrobial agent added to filter paper disc - MIC is reached at some distance --> zone of inhibition = area of no growth around disk |
|
|
Term
What are the types of chemical antimicrobial agents for external use? |
|
Definition
-Industrialized applications -Products design to reduce human pathogens --> sterilants (kills everything, whatever it contacts) --> disinfectants = sanitizers (reducing pathogenic bacteria to a level below which they wont cause disease through contact) --> antiseptics (inhibit growth of bacteria) |
|
|
Term
What are the beta-lactam antibiotics? |
|
Definition
Penicillins and Cephalosporins are examples |
|
|
Term
What are antibiotic drugs classified on the basis of? |
|
Definition
Molecular structure Mechanism of action Spectrum of antimicrobial activity |
|
|
Term
What is selective toxicity? |
|
Definition
-selective toxicity is the ability to inhibit or kill a pathogen without affecting the host. **Growth factor analogs --> structurally similar to growth factors but do not function in the cell |
|
|
Term
What are growth factor analogs? |
|
Definition
Structurally similar to growth factors but do not function in the cell. Play a part in selective toxicity |
|
|
Term
What are the types of synthetic antimicrobial drugs? |
|
Definition
Sulfa drugs - inhibit growth of bact. Isaniazid - growth analog effective only in Mycobacterium (interferes with synth. of mycolic acid) Nucleic acid base analogs - formed by the addition of bromine or fluorine Quinolones - antibacterial compounds that interfere with DNA gyrase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
naturally produced antimicrobial agents |
|
|
Term
What was the first antibiotic covered? describe it? |
|
Definition
Penicillin - primarily effective against gram + bact. - some synth. are effective against gram -
targets cell wall synthesis |
|
|
Term
What types of antibiotics are produced by bacteria? |
|
Definition
Aminoglycosides - antibiotics containing amino sugars bonded by glycosidic linkage (considered the last-resort antibio) Macrolides - broad spec. that targets 50S subunit of ribosome Tetracyclines (contain four rings) - inhibition of protein synth... inhibits functioning of 30S ribosomal subunit ... *can make u sensitive to sun burn |
|
|
Term
why may microorganisms be resistent to certain antibiotics? |
|
Definition
- organisms lack structure the antibiotic inhibits - organism is impermeable to a.b. - organism can inactivate a.b. - organism may modify the target of the a.b. - organism may develop a resistent biochem pathway - organism may be able to pump out the a.b. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
efflux pump. Proton motor force dependent ABC cassette. Establishes a high gradient outside the cell. Pumps are not very specific : can act on several antibiotics at once |
|
|
Term
how long does it usually take the immune system to build up a response? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
How long does it take for innate defense to kick in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What are three characteristics of the immune system ? |
|
Definition
1) specificity 2) universality 3) inducibility (immune response takes time to develop) |
|
|
Term
what are three characterstics of innate defense? |
|
Definition
1. less specific than ISR 2. Less universal than ISR 3. Is "constitutive": acts immediately, or very shortly, after inflammation. E.g. accute inflammation |
|
|
Term
What are the bodies three levels of defense? |
|
Definition
1) The surface of the body 2) innate defense (accute inflammation) 3) Immune system |
|
|
Term
what are the major innate defense mechanisms? |
|
Definition
i. accute inflammation ii. phagocytosis iii. complement iv. Interferons |
|
|
Term
Explain the mechanism of Innate Defence |
|
Definition
When a Mast cell gets a signal from an antibody on its surface, small granules that it contains will fuse with the membrane and the cells contents will spill out into the vicinity of the cell. One of those is histimine which will trigger a whole series of reactions tht result in acute inflammation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
it causes acute inflammation when it is released from mast cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Pathogenicity = the ability of a parasite to inflict damage on the host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Virulence = measure of pathogenicity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Opportunistic pathogen: causes disease only in the absence of normal host resistance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Situation in which microorganism is established and growing in a host, whether or not the host is harmed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Damage or injury to the host impairs host function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Genetic disease where there's a permease that takes things into the cell. A specific permease has a mutation and does not function properly. It changes environment outside the cells all over the body. |
|
|
Term
How do normal oral microflora colonize? |
|
Definition
by first attaching to acidic glycoproteins deposited there by saliva |
|
|
Term
How many microbial cells are found in GI tract? |
|
Definition
10^13 or 10^14 microbial cells |
|
|
Term
Which part of the respiratory tract has microflora? |
|
Definition
A restricted group of microflora colonizes the upper respiratory tract |
|
|
Term
Lactobacillus acidophilus |
|
Definition
A resident organism in the vagina, ferments the glycogen, producing lactic acid |
|
|
Term
How does one measure virulence? |
|
Definition
Estimated from experimental studies of the LD_50 (lethal dose50) **the amount of an agent that kills 50% of animals in test grop |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The decrease or loss of virulence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Organism causes disease by means of a toxin that inhabits host cell function or kills host cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Ability of a pathogen to grow in host tissue at densities that inhibit host function |
|
|
Term
What is bacterial adherence facilitated by? |
|
Definition
Bacterial adherence is facilitated by extracellular macromolecules that are not covalently attached to the bacterial cell surface (ie slime layer, bio film) - fimbriae and pili |
|
|
Term
What are the types of exotoxins? What do they do? |
|
Definition
Cytolytic toxins : Work by degrading cytoplasmic membrane integrity, causing cell lysis and death AB toxins : consists of two subunits; A and B works by binding to host cell receptor (B unit) and transferring damaging agent (A subunit) across cell membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an AB exotoxin. Consists of several related AB toxins tht are the most potent biological toxins known |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Endotoxin: liposaccharide portion of cell envelope of certain gram - bact. which is a toxin when solubilized --> generally less toxic than exotoxins --> presence detected by LAL assay |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Morbidity of a disease refers to the incidence of disease including fatal and nonfatal disease |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Collection of non-immune defense mechanisms. *Constitutive rather than inducible |
|
|
Term
What are the steps in phagocytosis? |
|
Definition
1) binding of bacterium to the surface of phagocytic cell. 2) the envelopment of the bacterium by the membrane of the phagocyte 3) the formation of a phagosome --> phagosome usually fuses with lysosome to form phagolysosome (leading to digestion) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Mechanism of Innate defense: Series of interacting proteins that initiate one another (one protein comp. will activate another "down stream ... Complement Cascade) |
|
|
Term
what are complement components involved as? |
|
Definition
As inflammatory mediators generated during the inflammatory process. |
|
|
Term
What is C3b? What is its function? |
|
Definition
C3B is an activated component of the third component of complement C3. Binds to surface of many bact. - aids process of phagocytosis --> binding of C3b to the surface leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex ... Results in the formation of holes in membranes |
|
|
Term
What are the different kinds of interferons? |
|
Definition
Alpha, Beta, gamma. Occurs in cells infected by viruses. |
|
|
Term
What type of interferon does lymphocytes infected by viruses produce? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What type of interferon does virally infected fibroblasts produce? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what methods can you use to attenuate a virus? |
|
Definition
- passage through other animal species could lower the virulence - application of heat over time |
|
|
Term
What is passive transfer of immunity? |
|
Definition
It is when the cell-free yellow liquid called "serum" is administered to normal, unimmunized animals. It confers protection against the toxins defended against in the serum. **discovery of this led to the discovery of antibodies! |
|
|
Term
what does immune serum do to bacteria? Why does this happen? |
|
Definition
It aggutinates it (causes them to clump together). Bacteria produces soluble, filterable molecules and immune serum contains antibodies specific for these soluble antigens. **precipitin reaction!! |
|
|
Term
What are the antibodies that facilitate phagocytosis called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What kind of antibodies are bound to mast cells? |
|
Definition
cytophilic antibodies leads to discharge by mast cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Humoral immunity are an expression by soluble antibodies. Its effects can be transferred to unimmunised animals by transfer of serum. |
|
|
Term
What are the major classes of antibodies? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which class of antibodies causes allergic reactions? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Describe a unit of antibody |
|
Definition
Unit consists of: - two identical light chains (220 amino acids, first region = variable region first 110 aa vary between chains, 2nd half = constant region) 2 identical heavy chain ... first domain is highly variable and nature of other domain determines the class to which the anitbody molecule belongs (IgM, IgG, IgE, IgM) |
|
|
Term
antibody selection theory |
|
Definition
Postulates that antigen selects good fitting antibodies from the vast array that are premade and waiting to be selected |
|
|
Term
What are the basic elements of clonal selection theory? |
|
Definition
Selection Cells able to respond to antigen are clonal (from precursor cell) |
|
|
Term
What are MHC molecules? What are the different types and their functions? |
|
Definition
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules *perform central role in recognition of antigens two kinds: 1) Class I MHC molecules - found on the surface of all cells of the body *hels in self-nonself differentiation 2) Class II MHC molecules are found mainly on phagocytic cells. |
|
|
Term
T-cells bearing CD4 antigen (CD4+) bind peptides to what ? |
|
Definition
T-cells bearing CD4 antigen bind peptides to MHC Class II molecules |
|
|
Term
T-cells bearing CD8 antigens bind to peptides bound to what ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What is a substance that can induce antibody called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A small immunogenic molecule that can bind (chemically conjugate) to non-immunogenic molecules and induce antibody. |
|
|
Term
Does removing the thymus prevent an immune response? |
|
Definition
Yes. it does remove the immune response |
|
|
Term
What is immunoincompetent and what causes it? |
|
Definition
What causes it?: malfunction of thymus or malfunction of bone marrow cells
immunoincompetent is an individual who is unable to emit an immune response |
|
|
Term
Bone marrow cells and Thymus cells |
|
Definition
Both are required in order to create an immune response |
|
|
Term
Out of bone marrow cells and thymocytes, which is the precurser cell? Why? |
|
Definition
Bone marrow cells have antibody receptors on their surface (thymocytes dont) Consistent with the possiblity they are the precursor cells **thermocytes bear on their surface an antigen referred to ask Thy1 |
|
|
Term
where are the cells corresponding to bone marrow and thymus cells found ? |
|
Definition
They are found in the spleen. |
|
|
Term
What is the function of the thymus cells present in the thymus? where are these same types of cells found? |
|
Definition
found in the thymus and lymphoid organs. Needed to allow antigen to induce bone marrow prescusor cells to produce progeny that secrete antibody. They are called helper or inducer T cells. |
|
|
Term
Helper t-cells exist only for what? |
|
Definition
only for foreign antigens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Hypothesis for the nature of the interaction between B and helper T cells required to induce antibody formation. A B cell can be induced by antigen if a second cell, the helper/inducer T cell, also binds to the antigen. |
|
|
Term
B-cells express what type of antigens on their surface |
|
Definition
B cells express class II MHC antigens on their surface. |
|
|
Term
What is recognized by helper T-cells ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What is the MHC-restricted B cell/T helper cell interaction model? |
|
Definition
This model states that -MHC Class II molecules on surface of B cell binds to peptide produced by antigen molecule. -helper T-cells will recognize and bind to peptide-MHC complex. |
|
|
Term
What happens when a self-antigen interacts with the receptors of a B cell in the absence of helper T cells. |
|
Definition
It results in the death of the B cell. This ensures that anti-self B cells are eliminated by a process called antigen-specific inactivation |
|
|
Term
What is the concept of cross reactivity? |
|
Definition
Some antigens have very similar or identical epitopes. If two antigens initiate an antibody (precipitate reaction) than they are said to cross react |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The area on an antigen molecule complementary to an antibody molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
immunity to self antigens. Caused by a cross-reaction of an antigenic molecules and non-antigenic molecules |
|
|
Term
What type of response results in a limited disease? |
|
Definition
The induction of an exclusive cell-mediated response results in limited disease |
|
|
Term
What type of response results in a chronic and/or fatal disease course? |
|
Definition
A humoral or mixed cell-mediated/humoral response results in a chronic and/or fatal course |
|
|
Term
What prompts the cloning of all T cells? |
|
Definition
the presence of a particular growth hormone - IL2 - is a growth factor for all T-cells When one T-cell, stimulated with antigen in the presence of IL2, will give rise to upwards of a million identical cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Any of a number of substances, such as interferon, secreted by certain cells of the immune system and having an effect on other cells. |
|
|
Term
What are the two major types of CD4+ T cells? What do they produce? |
|
Definition
Th1 CD4+ T cells produce IL2 and IFNg (among other cytokines) Th2 CD4+ T cells produce IL4 and IL10 (among other cytokines) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Can prevent viral multiplication and its delivery to infected macrophages by pathogen-specific CD4 T cells can result in macrophage activation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
An increase in metabolic pathways that are toxic for most pathogens inside the cell |
|
|
Term
What does the administration of IL4 do? Which other growth factor does the same? |
|
Definition
It increases IgG and IgE responses. IL10 does the same. The presence of IL4 or IL10 favors the induction of humoral, Th2 responses |
|
|
Term
What does the presence of IFNg cytokines do? |
|
Definition
favors the development of Th1 responses. |
|
|
Term
Which antibody class has subclasses? Why is this? |
|
Definition
IgG antibody class has four subclasses, IgG1-IgG4. They are produced under different circumstances |
|
|