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| The study of what genes are, how they carry information, how information is expressed, and how genes are replicated |
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| A segment of DNA that encodes a functional product, usually a protein (but it can be an RNA) |
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| Structure containing DNA that physically carries hereditary information |
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| All the genetic information in a cell |
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| The molecular study of genomes |
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-Polymer of nucleotides
-Double helix associated with proteins
-Backbone is deoxyribose-phosphate
-strands held together by h-bonds
-strands are antiparallel |
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| Double helix of DNA separates, new h-bonds are formed while each strand of parental DNA forms new pairs. Enzymes make backbone between new stand to thus form 2 separate daughter strands. |
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| DNA complementary strand bond |
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DNA is copied by DNA polymerase
5' -> 3' direction
Initiated by RNA primer |
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| Synthesized discontinuously |
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| DNA is transcribed to make RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and other RNAs). Begins when RNA pol binds to the promoter sequence in DNA |
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Transcription proceeds in the
5' -> 3' direction and stops when it reaches the |
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| Extra step inside the nucleus between transcription and mRNA |
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| Introns in primary RNA transcript |
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| Segments of RNA transcript that are derived from DNA introns that are cut out. Basically parts that shouldn't become mRNA |
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| Exon joining in primary RNA transcript |
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| Processing involves snRNP in the nucleus to remove the intron-derived RNA and slice together the exon-derived RNA into mRNA |
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| Primary RNA transcript: last step |
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| After further modification, the mature mRNA travels to cytoplasm, where it directs protein synthesis. |
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| mRNA is translated into codons, starts at start codon |
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| Nonsense codon aka STOP codon |
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On mRNA
Encodes 20 amino acids
genetic code is degenerate
tRNA carries the complementary anticodon |
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| Expressed at a fixed rate(constantly). All others are only expressed as needed |
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| [Control region (promoter and operator)] [structural genes] |
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| For the most part, the Repressor is active, and therefore the operon is mainly off. |
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| Binds to operator and prevents transcription from the operon |
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| Inducible operon: operon on |
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| When the inducer (allolactose) binds to the repressor protein, the inactivated repressor no longer blocks transcription. Transcription happens and leads to genes=> enzymes needed for lactose catabolism (in example) |
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| Repressive operon: structure |
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| Promoter and operator sites, and structural genes. Operon regulated by product of regulatory gene. |
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| Lag time of glucose-lactose consumption |
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| Intracellular cAMP increases, lac operon is transcribed, more lactose is transported into cell, and β-galactosidase is synthesized to break down lactose |
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| (off) genes are passed to offspring cells, are not permanent, and have biofilm behavior |
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| A change in genetic material. Can be neutral, beneficial, or harmful |
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| Agent that causes mutations |
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| Occur in the absence of a mutagen |
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| Base substitution that results in changes in amino acid |
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| Base substitution that results in a nonsense codon aka stop |
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| Insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotide pairs (not multiples of 3) and causes a shift in the reading frame |
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Spontaneous mutation:
1 in 10000000000 base pairs
1 in 1000000000 relocated genes
Mutagens
Increase it to:
1 in 10,000 base pairs
1 in 100 replicated genes |
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Makes a mutagen
(ex. A bonds with C instead of T) |
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| Separate thymine dimers. Repair |
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| Nucleotide excision repair |
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Genetic transfer:
Vertical gene transfer |
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| Occur during reproduction between generations of cells |
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Genetic transfer:
Horizontal gene transfer |
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| The transfer of genes between cells of the same generation |
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Genetic recombination:
Exchange of genes b/t 2 DNA molecules |
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| Crossing over occurs when 2 chromosomes break and rejoin |
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| Horizontal transfer example |
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| Genetic movement between different cells |
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| Vertical transfer example |
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| Kid from parents... DNA to RNA |
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| Genetic recombination due to crossing over |
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1) DNA (nicked) from one cell aligns with recipient cell's DNA.
2) Donor DNA aligns with complementary base pairs in recipient DNA.
3) RecA protein catalyzes the joining of 2 strands.
4) DNA pol and DNA ligase. Donor DNA then destroyed. |
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| Transformation, conjugation, transduction |
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DNA Transfer:
Transformation |
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| Cellular DNA that is naked, or released from other cell |
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DNA Transfer:
Transduction |
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Genetic transformation:
Griffith's experiment |
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Bacteria injected into mouse. Different types:
living encapsulated: died
Living non encapsulated: lived
Heat-killed encapsulated: lived
Live non encapsulated and heat killed encapsulated: died |
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Used Streptococcus pneumoniae
The heat killed encapsulated Bacteria's DNA was transferred over to nonencapsulated bacteria. And DNA recombination made fatal living capsulated bacterial cell. Mouse died |
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| Smooth strain of streptococcus pneumoniae |
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| Rough strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae |
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| Has physiological ability to take in foreign DNA |
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Sex pilus between F and F- cell
Mating bridge |
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| When a F factor (a plasmid) is transferred from a donor (F ) to a recipient (F-) |
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| The F- cell is converted to an F |
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Bacterial conjugation:
When F factor is integrated into the chromosome of an F cell |
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| It makes the cell a high frequency of recombination (Hfr) cell |
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Bacterial conjugation:
When an Hfr donor passes portion of chromosome into F- recipient |
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| A recombinant F- cell results |
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| Carries genes for sex pili and transfer of the plasmid |
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| Encode enzymes for catabolism of unusual compounds |
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| Encode antibiotic resistance |
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Segments of DNA that can move from one region of DNA to another
Contain insertion sequences for cutting and resealing DNA (transposase)
Complex transposons carry other genes |
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Simplest transposons
Contains a gene for transposase, the enzyme that catalyzes transposition. The transposase gene is bound at each end of the inverted repeat sequences that function as recognition sites for the transposon. |
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| Insertion sequence example |
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| Carry other genetic material in addition to transposase genes. Tn5 is an example. Carries the gene for kanamycin resistance and has complete copies of IS1 at each end. |
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