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| Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating |
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| Cognitive Psychologists work with |
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| Concept formation, problem solving, decision making, judgement making |
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| organizational framework of the mind |
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| Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people within a schema |
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| Mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category to a prototypical bird, such as a robin |
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Logical step by step procedures
Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem |
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Quick, rules of thumb
Simple thinking strategy that ogten allowsus to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. Speeder and more error prone to algorithms. |
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| Representativeness Heuristic |
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Judging the likelihood of ecents based on their availability in memory. If instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common
[car crashes vs. plane crashes] |
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Sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem contrasts with strategy-base solutions
Wolfgang Kholer |
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| Tendency to search for info that confirms one's preconceptions |
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Inability to see ap orblem from a new perspective.
Impediment to problem solving |
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| Tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially a way that has been successful in the pasy bu may or may not be helpgul in solving a new problem |
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Mental state leads to Fixation
True or False? |
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| Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions. impediment to problem solving |
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| Tendency to be more confident than correct. Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements |
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The way an issue is posed.
How an issues is framed can significantly affect decision and judgements
Loftus Study
25% fat? or 75% lean? |
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| The tendency for once's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning. Sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or invalid conclusions seem valid |
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| Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
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| Artificial Intelligence (A.I.) |
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| Designing and programming computer systems to: do intelligent things, simulate human thought processes, intuitive reasoning, learning and understanding language |
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| Computer circuits that mimic the brain's interconnected neural cells. Performing tasks: learning ot recognize visual pattersn and recognize smells |
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| Our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning |
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(100 in English Language)
In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound
ga, ka, da, muh |
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(50,000 in English Language)
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
preexisting
pre-before
exist- to be
ing- doing (action) |
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| A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others |
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(connotation/denotation)
The set of rules by by which we derive the meaning from morphemes. words, and sentences in a given language
Also the study of meaning |
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| The rules for combing words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language |
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Beginning at 3-4 months.
The stage os speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters sounds at first unrelated to the househould language
Goo, ga, ba, blrrrp |
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From about age 1-2
The stage in speech development during which the child speaks mostly in single words |
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Beginning about age 2.
The stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two worded statements
Mama Go.
Cookie Want
Koko love |
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| Early speech stage in which a child speaks |
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| Skinner (Operant Conditioning) Believed What? |
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| Believed that we can explain langauge development with familar learning principles such as association, imitation, reinforcement |
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| Chomsky (Inborn Universal Grammar) Believed What? |
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| Believes that children are biologically prepared to learn words and use grammar. Out language acquisition capacity is like a box - a "lanauge acquisition device (LAD)" in which grammar switches are thrown as children experience their language |
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| Language Acquisition Device (LAD) |
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Grammar switches are thrown as a children experience their language
Noam Chomsky |
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| Cognitive Neuroscientists Believe What? |
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Emphasize that for the mastery of grammar, the learning that occurs during life's first few years, when the brain is building a dense network of neural connections, is critical
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Langauge Determinism/ Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis/ Whorfian Hypothesis
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Hypothesis that language determine's the way we think.
The Hop have no paste tense for verbs. The Hopi don't readily think about the past. --> Interplay of through and language
Benjamin Whorf
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| persistence of learning overtime via the storage and retrieval of information |
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| A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
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The processing of information into the memory system
ex. extract meaning |
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| The retention of encoded information overtime |
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| Process of getting information out of memory |
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| Who created the Memory Model? |
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The immediate initial recording sensory information in the memory system
Function: holds info long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics. Holds A LOT.
Duration:very short
Sensory memory forms automatically without attention/interpretation. Attention is required to transfer to working memory |
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| Focuses more on the processing of briefly stored info |
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Activated memory that holds few items briefly
ex. looking up phone numbers and forgetting
Function: conscious processing of information
Holds 7 + or - 2 items |
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| George Miller's Magic Number |
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| Short-term memory capacity limited to 7 plus or minus 2 items |
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| Mental or verbal repetition of info allows info to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds |
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Unconscious encoding of incidental information
ex. space, time, frequency, word meanings
(encoding) |
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Requires attention and conscious effort
(encoding) |
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| Conscious repetition of information |
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| Who created the spacing effect? |
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| Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice |
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Tendency to recall best the last items in a list
Primacy: first
Recencsy: last
Somatically Distinctive: different |
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Encoding of meaning, words
best one to do |
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| Encoding sound, sound of words |
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| Encoding of picture images |
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| Mental pictures. Powerful aid to effortful processing, very powerful when paired with semantic |
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| Memory aids. Techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
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| As an aid to memorizing lengthy speeches, ancient Greek orators visualized themselves through familiar locations |
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| Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Often occurs automatically. Use of acronyms |
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| Complex information broken down into broad concepts. Further subdivided into categories and subcategories |
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| a momentary sensory memory of stimuli. A photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
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| Momentary sensory memory or auditory stimuli |
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| Explicit (Declarative) Memory |
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| Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously known and declare |
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| Neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage |
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| Implicit (procedural) memory |
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Retention independent of conscious recollection
Ex. riding a bike, tying shoes |
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| Rats learn maze, lesion cortex and test memory |
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| Increase in synapses firing potential after a brief rapid stimulation. Strong emotion make for stronger memories (more LTP). Some stress hormones boost learning and retention |
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| localized memory trace. THESE ARE FUCKING EVERYWHERE IN YOUR BRAIN! HOLY SHIT. |
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| Measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier |
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| Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned |
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Memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time
Hermann Ebbinghaus |
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| Activation, often unconsciously, of a particular association in memory |
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| cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience |
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Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current memory
Sad-> sad memories |
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| State Dependent Memories (learning) |
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| What is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state |
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| Inability to remember past episodic info; common after head injury |
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| Inability to form new memories; related to hippocampus damage |
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Information never enters the long term memory
(Failure Theory) |
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| Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve info from long term memory |
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| Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon |
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| Involves the sensation of knowing that specific info is stored in long term memory but unable to retrieve it. |
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| Learning from items may disrupt the retrieval of the inforation |
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| When can forgetting occur? |
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| At any memory state. As we process info, we filter, alter, or lose much of it |
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| Proactive (forward acting) Interference |
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Disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info
Can't remember new because of the old |
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| Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference |
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Disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old info.
Can't remember old because of new |
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| People unknowingly revise memories |
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| Defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety, arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
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| Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event |
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| Attributing to the wrong source of an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misatrritbution) |
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| Condition in which a person's identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experiences. Sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists |
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| A method of assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others, using numerical scores |
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His definition of intelligence: collection of higher-order mental abilities loosely related to one another
Did not rank 'normal' students according to the scores. Intelligence is nurtured. Binet-Simon Test developed in France, 1905 |
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| Measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet |
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| Most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Child who does well as the average 8 year old is said to have the mental age of an 8 year old |
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| Widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test. Revised by LEWIS TERMAN at Stanford University |
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| 4 Elements of Intelligence |
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Direction: Ability to work toward goal
Adaptability: making necessary adjustments to solve a problem
Comprehension: understanding the basic problem
Self-evaluation: knowing if the problem has been solved correctly |
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| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
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Definition
Measure that compares mental age with physical age
(Mental age/chronological age)*100=IQ
(20/16)*100=125 |
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| Intelligence (psychologist definition) |
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| Ability to understand and adapt to the environment using a combination of inherited abilities and learned experiences |
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| Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence |
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| Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist |
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| Condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill |
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| What did Robert Sternberg come up with? |
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| Analytic, creative, and practical intelligence |
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Mental processes used in learning how to solve problems
Robert Sternberg |
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Ability to deal with novel situation by drawing on existing skills an knowledge
Robert Sternberg |
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Ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts)
Robert Sternberg |
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| The know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully |
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| Ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions |
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| Spearmen's G: Charles Spearmen |
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statistical process (factor analysis) to prove a positive correlation between test scores and mental ability tests. Score well on one test, score well on others.
G and S Factor |
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| General intelligence referring to what all mental ability tests had in common |
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| Specific factor related to whatever unique abilities a particular test requires |
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| Believed intelligence was not just one G Factor, but a small set of independent factors of all equal importance called Primary Mental Abilities |
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| Constitute intelligence: verbal comprehension, numerical ability, memory, inductive reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal fluency, spatial relations |
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| What did Raymond Cattell and John Horn theorize? |
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| That where are 2 kinds of intelligence. Fluid and crystallized intelligence |
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Biological basis, such as speed of reasoning and memory
Increases into adulthood, then decreases with aging
Raymond Cattell and John Horn |
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| Crystallized Intelligence |
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Knowledge and skills obtained through learning and experience
Increases during life as long as there are learning opportunities and can last forever
Raymond Cattell and John Horn |
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The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
(expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment |
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| Francis Galton (Franz Gal)'s Phrenology |
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| Slight correlation between head size (relative to body size) and intelligence score |
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| A test designed to predict a person's future performance. Aptitude is the capacity to learn |
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| A test designed to asses what a person has learned |
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| Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): WISC-III for kids |
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Definition
Most widely used intelligence test, subtests are verbal, performance(nonverbal). Used more widely now than Stanford-Binet
Normal Distribution: 68% are in average. 14% are above and below. 2% are extremes. 0.1% are super extreme |
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| Below 70 IQ. Difficulty adapting to environment. Varies mild to profound |
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| Retardation and association. Physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genes |
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| the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. Variability depends on range of populations and environments studied |
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| What is the average error of IQ tests? |
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