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the capacity to store and retrieve information
Any method by which our previous experiences influence our current behavior. |
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1) Encoding (Acquisition)- code and put it into memory
2) Storage (Retention)- maintain in memory
3) Retrieval- recover from memory |
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| Daydreaming, not paying attention |
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| it's in your memory but can't get to it right now |
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How information is presented
Linguistic/Verbal (words)
Visual (image) |
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changing the stored information
-reorganization
-elaboration |
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| Levels of processing theory (definition) |
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| Attention is critical to encoding memories |
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Levels of processing:
1) Superficial/Shallow/Structural (visual) |
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Definition
Ex: Is the word in capital letters?
hat (No) DOG (Yes) |
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Levels of Processing
2) Phonemic (acoustic) |
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Ex: Does the word rhyme with cat?
hat (Yes) DOG (No) |
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| Deep (semantic, what does it mean?) |
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Ex: Would it fit in this sentence?
The boy wore the...
hat (Yes) DOG (No) |
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| Link a stimulus to other information at encoding |
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Decide how or if the information is personally relevant
Used in mnemonics |
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| Visual Imagery (Dual Coding Theory) |
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creating a visual image as well as linguistic/verbal
Used in menmonics |
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Info from the senses is held briefly
Fairly large capacity |
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Capacity is limited
Maintains unrehearsed info for several seconds
Can maintain longer if rehearsed |
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| Unlimited capacity storage that can hold info over a long period of time |
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7 +/- 2
Immediate Memory Span |
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A meaningful group of information
Order is meaningful to you |
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| Transfer to LTM through... |
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Better memory for items found first in the list (more time to rehearse)
Reflects LTM storage |
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Better memory for items found towards end of the list
Reflects STM storage |
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| Rote or Maintenance Rehearsal |
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| repeating it over and over |
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| connecting it to other concepts |
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| Store the meaning of information (main aspects) |
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| Bartlett and the War of Ghosts |
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Definition
Semantic Coding Experiment
Participant's omit some details and change memories to make the story more coherent |
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| Explicit/Declarative Memory |
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Consciously recollect memories
Bring to mind knowledge, episodes, etc… and bring them to words |
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| What things mean, things you know (pi sign) |
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| Recollection of episodes/events in your life (first kiss) |
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| Implicit/Non-Declarative Memory |
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| Independent of conscious recollection |
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| Know how to carry out certain procedures (tie a shoe, ride a bike, etc…) and can put it into words |
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| Classical and Operant Conditioning Memory |
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| Learning associations, some automatic and unconscious |
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| Anterograde Amnesia: What is it and what memory does it affect? |
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Caused by damage to the hippocampus
Explicit/Declarative memory impaired |
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| theoretical construct, concepts represented in network of associations |
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Represent concepts
Ex: Node for cat associated with node for dog, but not associated with node for table |
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| Activation of association words |
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| Abstract knowledge structures about particular objects or events |
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Schema is not reliant on you recalling one specific episode, been abstracted from common experiences that you have had
Ex: instructor's office, restaurants |
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| Reconstructive Nature of Memory: Implications (Train Police Officers) |
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First ask the witness to visualize the scene, without any interruption. Then, ask questions.
Accurate recall increases about 50% |
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| Forgetting form LTM: Decay |
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| Forgetting occurs simply because of the passage of time |
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| Forgetting from LTM: Interference |
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| Forgetting is due to the presence of other information interfering with retrieval or storage |
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PREVIOUSLY learned information impairs the retention of NEW information
Ex: going to where you parked your car yesterday |
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RECENT information impairs the retention of PREVIOUSLY learned information
Ex: New passwords |
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Relatively permanent change in the ability to exhibit a behavior (or knowledge) as a result of EXPERIENCE
(Doesn't include maturation) |
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Learning as a function of (repeated) pairings of events
-Associative learning |
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| Any detectable input from the environment |
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| Behavior produced by an individual |
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| Outcome following a response |
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Repeated S-S pairings
Relationship between to stimuli |
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Repeated R-C pairings
Relationship between behavior and consequences of our behavior |
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| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) |
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Definition
Stimulus that naturally elicits a response without conditioning
Ex: painful injection |
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| Unconditioned Response (UR) |
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Definition
Unlearned (automatic) response to the US
Ex: Emotional reaction (UR) to an injection (US) |
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| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
Originally a neutral stimulus, that through pairing with the US, acquires the capacity to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
Ex: Doctor's office |
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| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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Learned response to a CS (often similar to the UR)
Ex: child's fear of the doctor's office |
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| CC Processes: Acquisition |
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Definition
| The CS and US are repeatedly paired (the NS becomes a CS) |
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A decrease in the CR as a result of continuously presenting the CS without the US
Ex: visiting the doctor's office multiple times without getting shots and the fear decreases |
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| The reappearance of a CR after extinction and without further pairings of CS and US |
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| CC Processes: Generalization |
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When a stimulus similar to the CS also evokes a CR
Ex: Fear of doctor's office, also fear of dentist's office |
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| CC Processes: Discrimination |
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The ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli
Ex: child is not afraid of the accountant's office |
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| Role of cognitive processes in CC |
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Definition
| learning the predictability of the second event (CS predicts US) |
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| Role of biological predispositions in CC |
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Biologically prepared to learn somethings more easily than others
Ex: Conditioned taste aversion-a taste or flavor that perceives getting sick |
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| Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect |
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Definition
| Of several responses made in a situation, those followed by a pleasant outcome will increase in occurence, and vise versa |
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| Occurs when a response is followed by a pleasant outcome resulting in an increased likelihood that the response will occur in the future |
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| Occurs when a response is followed by an unpleasant outcome resulting in a decreased likelihood that the response will occur in the future |
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| Operant Conditioning: Positive |
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| Operant Conditioning: Negative |
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Application of a pleasing stimulus
Ex: Paying siblings to clean your room |
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Removal of an aversive stimulus
Ex: Getting rid of a horrible sound |
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Application of an aversive stimulus
Ex: Spanking someone |
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Removal of a pleasing stimulus
Ex: timeouts |
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| Forming and strengthening behavior |
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| Reinforcing successive approximations of a goal behavior until the desired response is consistently displayed |
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| Successive Approximations |
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| Steps getting closer and closer to a goal |
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The analysis and transformation of information to achieve a goal
Not dependent on the situation, but the person in the situation |
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Definition
1) Represent the Problem
2) Try to plan potential solutions
3) Evaluate/Select Solution
4) Try to execute solution and evaluate the results |
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| represents given or starting conditions |
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| Represents final or goal situation |
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| moves made from one state to another |
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| Intermediate problem states |
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| States generated by applying operators |
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| Newell and Simon- Problem Space |
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1) Initial Representation
2) Goal State
3) Operators
4) Intermediate problem states |
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| Trying possible solutions and discarding those that lead to an error until one works |
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| Use a similar problem as a guide |
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| Systematic procedures that can't fail |
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| Tendency to approach a problem type in a particular way, even if it’s not the best current approach |
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| Tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use |
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| 3 Aspects of Expertise- Experts are better at: |
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Definition
1) Chunking
2) Planning
3) Recognizing Analogies |
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| Normative Decision Making |
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Definition
How people SHOULD make decisions
-Logical, rational decisions
-"Prescriptive" approach |
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| Descriptive Decision Making |
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| How people actually make decisions |
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Estimate the probability of an event based on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind
-Based on availability in memory |
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Availability heuristic implications:
We underestimate the frequency of ________ events. |
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Availability heuristic implications:
We overestimate the frequency of _______ events. |
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Estimate the probability of an event based on how similar it is to our prototype of that type of event
-Based on how well the event represents what we think is typical |
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The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't happened recently
Ex: Casinos |
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In estimating probabilities, we often ignore information on base rates (how often something normally occurs)
Ex: risk of lung cancer when you smoke |
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| Weschler viewed intelligence as a global capacity to... (3 Things) |
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1) Understand the world
2) Think Rationally
3) Cope resourcefully with life's challenges |
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| Intuitive People (Non-Experts viewed intelligence as... (3 Things) |
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1) Verbal Ability
2) Social Competence
3) Practical Problem Solving |
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Mainly focused on verbal ability
Designed to predict academic performance |
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| Galton and Eugenics Movement- Negative Use |
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| efforts to control reproduction to gradually improve hereditary characteristics |
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| Immigration and Test Bias- Negative Use |
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| US classifies many Eastern Europeans as "feeble-minded" |
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Looked for tasks that emphasized differences in ability to reason and solve problems
-Practical, educational use |
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| Based on level at which the child performs |
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| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
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| Scores get their meaning by comparing them to test norms based on performance of a standardization group |
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| Must have _______ to have ________ |
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| Evidence for genetic influences |
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