Term
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Definition
-smell
- odorants / airborn molecules
- when you mel something you smell a little piece of it |
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Term
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Definition
- liquids or solids that are able to produce enough of a vapor that you can smell them from a distance
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Term
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Definition
- receptor for smell
- made of support cells
and receptor cells
- located in the nasal passage
- below the olfactory bulb
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Term
| Olfactory Receptor Proteins |
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Definition
- are GPCRs
- they can respond to any number of different shapes of molecues
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Term
| Olfactory Receptor Proteins of different animals |
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Definition
Mammals ~ 1000 genes coding for olfactory proteins
Fish ~ 100 genes
Mouse ~ 1300 genes
Humans ~350
- there are 350 genes that are transcribed and translated that result in these genes |
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Term
| Human Olfactory Receptor Proteins |
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Definition
- ~350 genes that are made to work in the olfactory area
- + - 650 nonfunctional pseduogenes (appear to be olfactory genes but are not transcribed into proteins that actually work)
~ we can smell 100,000 different odors with only 350 genes
- any odor activates a number of different GPCRs by |
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Term
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Definition
- constantly replaced by stem cells which can convert into any number of olfactory cells and replace them on a regular basis |
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Term
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Definition
right above the olfactory epithelium
- recieves neural input about odors
- axons of the olfactory receptor extend directly into the olfactory bulb where information about odors is processed |
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Term
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Definition
- deficit in olfactory perception
- specific anosmia
- usually due to gene changes in one olfactory GPCR
- General Anosmia
- where someone has loss of all smell |
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Term
| Olfactory neural pathways |
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Definition
olfactory bulb -> thalamus arbitofrontal cortex -> amygdala temporal crotex hypothalamus (limbic system)
- no one really knows what is going on here because everything is very complicated |
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Term
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Definition
Transient Receptor Potential (family of receptors)
- TRPV1 - activated by chemicals such as capsaicin , piperine
- TRPM8 - sensitive to menthol and cold
- TRPA1 - found in pit organs of pit vipers and allows them to sense heat
- sensitive to different types of isothyocinate such as AITC - which is found in mustard and thought to be involved in heat and pain |
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Term
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Definition
- pungent chemicals
- from plants in the mustard family
- allyl-isothiocynate (TRPA1) |
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Term
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Definition
-Capsaicin Receptor
- inotropic receptor
- Ca ++ channel , depolarization
- also activated by heat
TRPV1
- heat is just a speeding up of molecular motion |
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Term
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Definition
- taste + smell + pungent + texture
- hot and cold are not classified as a taste because it goes into a different kind of cranial never pathway that are associated more with the pain pathway |
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Term
| Auditory Neural Pathways into the Brain |
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Definition
- Neural pathways from the Cochlea to the cortex
- Brainstem -> midbrain -> thalamus -> cortex |
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Term
| Primary Auditory Cortex in Cortex |
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Definition
in the temporal cortex
- first place to get input from the ears
then it goes to other cortical areas and gets all mixed up |
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Term
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Definition
- Cochlea
- semi-circular canals
-- have hair cells and fluid in them
-- as our bodies spin around the hair cells and fluid move
-- involved in balance
-- not usually aware of the vestibular system unless we draw attention to it by like spinning around
- saccule
-- attatched to the canals which actually have the hair cells in them (something about utricle ?) |
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Term
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Definition
- crystals of calcium carbonate (like lime stone) that are in our ears
- located with the fluid and hair cells
- knock against the hair cells and cause additional stimulation |
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Term
| Directional Sound Perception |
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Definition
- judge location of sound based on difference in the time it takes between reaching the two different ears.
- because speed of sound is a pretty small number
- nature of the quality of sound is different because it is shadowed by your head
- OWLS are better than us at thi s
-- can hunt in total darkness
-- can precisely locate something based on the sound
-- asymmetry in their ears
(one is higher)
-- allows them to get great "up / down" location and well as other location |
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Term
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Definition
- one of the cranial nerves (8th cranial nerve)
- hare cells have synapses with auditory nerve |
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Term
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Definition
- embedded in the basilar membrane with hair cells extending into the tectoral membrane
- movement of hair opens ION CHANNELS FOR K+ causing DEPOLARIZATION of the membrane
- this depolarization OPENS CA++ channels causing further DEPOLARIZATION and release of neurotransmitters
- converts sound energy into a neural signal
- INNER HAIR CELLS ~3,500 per cochlea (send the singals to the brain)
- OUTTER HAIR CELLS ~12,000 per cochlea |
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Term
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Definition
- coupled to K+ channels
= diameter : 3 nm
- between hairs |
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Term
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Definition
- located on the tongue
- consist of cluster of cells
- embedded in the surface of the tongue
- there is a pour that allows the fluid of the mouth to go into it where there are structures at the end of the cells
-- these are taste receptor cells (microvilli)
- increase the surface area of the taste preceptor cells where the molecules interact with the receptor proteins
- taste receptor molecues are floating around in our mouths
- there are synapses with these receptor cells that are connected to the crainal nerves (7, 9 and 10) |
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Term
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Definition
| - stem cells are at the base of the taste receptor cells |
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Term
| Gustatory Neural Pathway (Taste) |
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Definition
- connections -> tongue to brainstem to thalamus to insula and somatosensory cortex
-- this is just tasting something
- another pathway -> tongue to brainstem to hypothalamus and amygdala
-- this is more of an emotional response to taste |
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Term
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Definition
- SALT -- ion-channel sensitive to sodium
- SOUR -- ino-channel sensitive to H+ (acids) when they are in solution they produce hydrogen ions
- BITTER -- ~30 GPCRs ( a lot of things are bitter to us because a lot of different receptor proteins plug into the bitter system) (can be very different structurally)
- Sweet-- ~2 GPCRs (sugars) all pretty similar in structure
- Umami |
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Term
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Definition
- sucrose = sugar
- originated around southeast asia and south pacific
- it is a grass (sugar cane)
- press cane to get the juice out and concentrated later
- origins of slavery |
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Term
| Synthetic Sweeteners / Non-nutritive |
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Definition
- Synthetic Sweeteners - called this because it is made in a factory
- non-nutritive - called this because they are a lot sweeter than sugar (no choleric value)
- Glucose (primary energy source of our body)
-- only about 5 grams total in our blood
- STEVIOSIDE - 300 x sweeter than sucrose
- SUCRALOSE -600 x sweeter (looks like sucrose but 3 cl instad of 3 oh)
-- this is splenda
- ASPARTAME - 180 x sweeter (discovered accidently when a chemist touched his tongue)
- SACCHARINE - 500 x sweeter (discovered accidently - whole thing with cancer?)
- NEOTAME - 10,000 x sweeter (this was done intentially because it looks a lot like aspartame)
-STEVIA - it is sweet but it also has other characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
- "japanese - delicious or savory"
- responds to GLUTAMATE
- it is GPCR
- this is the taste of msg
- GLUTAMATE gives a distinctly different taste
- 2000 the umami taste receptor cell was cloned and THEN we decided "okay its real" |
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Term
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Definition
- TPRA1 receptor (activated by heat AND gives rise to the feeling of heat)
- Trigeminal nerve (5th cranial nerve) |
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Term
| Somatosensory receptors in the skin |
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Definition
- Somatosensory - things that interact with our skin
- some of these receptors are TRP type responding to temp.
-- there are other receptors activated only by over the top stimuli
RECEPTORS
- Pain
- Touch / Pressure
-- mechanoreceptors
--often associated with the hair follicles
-- hair is there to provide additional level of sensitivity
- temp |
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Term
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Definition
| - clusters of cells along the spinal cord that receive input from somatosensory cells |
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Term
| Somatosensory representation |
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Definition
- particular cells in the body correspond to cells in the cortex
-- these are the receptive filed of the cells
- ex. finger to a special cell in the cortex |
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Term
| Primary SOmatosensory Cortex (S1) |
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Definition
- anterior parietal lobe (relative location)
- posterior to the central sulcus (relative location)
- postcentral gyrus (actual location)
- the connectivity between the somatosensory cortex and the body is contralateral |
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Term
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Definition
- neurosurgeon in Canada
- use the opportunity of surgery to test the patients response to stimuli
- poke electrodes in the brain and ask the patient if they felt anything (etc.)
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PENFIELD MAP OR SOMATOSENSORY HOMUNCULUS
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Term
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Definition
- body map along the postcentral grys in the parietal lobe
- you take a frontal section and look at the edge of that slice |
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Term
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Definition
| loss of sensation for a particular body part (whichever part was damaged) |
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Term
| Secondary somatosensory cortex |
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Definition
- the things that come after the primary input
- lesion in these result in NEGLECT SYNDROMES |
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Term
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Definition
- you dont pay attention to a certain part of the world
- lesion in the S2
- this can also happen in vision
- you are not blind and if you are FORCED to pay attentino you can see it but in everyday life you ignore it or are not aware of it
-with TOUCH people dont pay attention to certain parts of their bodies |
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Term
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Definition
- the loss of being able to identify what is going on
- if you had your eyes closed and were asked to identify something by manipulating it with your hand you would not have any clue what iw as, you could feel lit and know youre feeling it but you cant put the information together to get the big picture |
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Term
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Definition
- they have the perception that the thing they lost is still there
- they can physically feel it and feel like they can move it
- not usually a problem but if there is still pain associated with it then they can still feel the pain |
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Term
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Definition
- mice - whiskers are their main sense of touch
-whiskers have a substantial representation in their somatosensory map of their brains
- whisker barrels --> s1 in the mouse brain
- AMPUTATION OF WHISKER
- the nearby barrels expand
- reorganize their connections in some way so that they are receiving information from the surrounding whiskers |
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Term
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Definition
- ability to alter neural patters in some way
- forming new connections that were not there before
- strengthening synapses
- etc. |
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Term
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Definition
- this person wants to have a body part cut off
- they don't like that they are this way (actually very upset) but they care constantly obsessing about this and being depressed
- some patients actually DO end up cutting off their body party and then they feel better
- the idea is that they is maybe some kind of DISRUPTION for the body ap for that part of the body for regions of the brain that are building the map up and connecting with the emotional experience
- IDEA -body maps are bizarrely organized in some way and strangely connected with emotion regions in some way |
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Term
| Primary Motor Crotex (M1) |
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Definition
- anterior to the central sulcus
- this is called the precentral gyrus
- penfield discovered this map of the body
- called the motor homunculus |
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Term
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Definition
- Paralysis
- motor equivalent of scotoma
- anterior frontal motor areas are active during planning of movement
- prefrontal cortex plans -> pre-motor cortex sequences -> motot cortex executes actions
- LESIONS OF THESE OTHER MOTOR AREAS
- apraxias |
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Term
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Definition
| - they can still move (no paralysis) but there is a disruption of the organization of movement, |
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Term
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Definition
- frontal lobe mirror neurons
- active during movement AND during observation of movement
- areas in the frontal lobe (cortex)
- in the motor areas
- they respond to a mirror image of what is going on in the world in the same way that they respond to their own bodies
- relevant to language and meaning |
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Term
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Definition
- means of communication by the use of signs, sounds, and gestures, having understood meanings
- animal communication
-- bird songs
-- primate cells
-- honeybee dance
- human language - great complexity |
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Term
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Definition
- disorder of language due to a lesion
- study of them lead to the modern area of neurology |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- identified a disorder of language in people (like not being able to speak or write) even though they were not paralyzed
- after these people died (often due to stroke) he would look at their brains
- identified a region of the left frontal lobe called broca's area |
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Term
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Definition
-region of the left frontal lobe
-appears to be like mirror neurons for language |
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Term
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Definition
- production aphasia for spoken AND written langauge
- they can understand but they cant speak or write
- it is an apraxia related to language |
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Term
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Definition
- in a premotor area
- lesions here have production problems with being able to orchestrate complex movement
- Broca's aphasia is an apraxia related to language |
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Term
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Definition
| - A contemporary of Broca |
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Term
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Definition
| - found in the left posterior temporal lobe |
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Term
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Definition
- comprehension aphasia for spoken and written language
- they can speak but they have a problem comprehending language so they cant understand what people tell them
- an auditory agnosia
-- this means that the sensory organs information and analysis is somehow garbled so people have a hard time making sense of what is going on |
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Term
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Definition
- Freud
- strategies used by the mind to reduce anxiety
-- may involve distortions of reality
- denial of illness in anosonosia --> akin to psychological defense mechanisms (freud) |
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Term
| Freudian Psychological Defense |
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Definition
- Denial
- Rationalization
- projection (put something off onto something else) ((thats not my arm its my brothers))
- reaction formations - taking extreme opposite stand (exaggeration of the abilities of paralyzed hand as a way of dealing with denying that there is a problem.
- humor
- etc. |
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Term
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Definition
Language found in the brain
- Right Handed
97 % langauge in the left hemisphere
3 % in the right
- Left handed or Ambidextrous
70% left hemisphere
15% right
15% both |
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Term
| Jun Wada and the Wada Test |
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Definition
- Cerebral lateralization of language
- prior to brain surgery to see which hemisphere the language areas were in
- A barbiturate / sedative hypnotic drug was injected into one of the carotid arteries (carries blood from the heart to the brain)
-- person is awake and conscious and counting
- stuff injected to right side
-- continue counting after a slight pause to notice the strange effects
- allowed to wear off
- stuff inject to left side as they count
--seconds later they cannot speak anymore |
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Term
| Definition of lateralization |
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Definition
| - there is something about one side of the cerebral cortex that is specialized for one kind of special skill |
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Term
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Definition
-IDEA -- cerebral asymmetry
- result of lesions would be somatosensory weirdness (loss of sensation)
- LEFT HEMISPHERE
-- effect the right half of the body
--paralysis
- RIGHT HEMISPHERE L
-- effect the left half of the body
-paralysis
-and ANOSOGNOSIA
-- patient denies there is anything wrong with them
-- only happens with RIGHT hemisphere lesions
-- they make up excuses for why they are unable to move (though the real reason is paralysis)
- not permanent
- most prominent right after stroke |
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Term
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Definition
- split brain patients
- screen projector in front of them
- patients sit in front of it so their eyes are fixed in the middle
- a pictures is showon on one of the two visual fields
- if the spoon is in the left visual field the person doesnt know what it is or if they even saw antyhing at all
- if its in the right side, they know it was a spoon
ANOTHER experiment
- you can see a spoon in thel eft and a pencil in the right
- ask what they see. they say pencil because its in the right visual field
- BUT if you ask them to choose with his left hand what he sees then he will be able to choose the spoon
- still has the ability to reason and work things out but cannot speak
IDEA
ask what sees - say pencil
ask to choose what he sees with left hand - grabs spoon |
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Term
Lateralization of Function
Left Hemisphere |
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Definition
- language
- calculation
- visual detail |
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Term
Lateralization of Function
right hemisphere
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Definition
- nonverbal linguistic (tone of voice and body posture)
- 3D spatial
- Visual gestalt
- Harmony, Timbre |
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Term
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Definition
Marian Diamond (UCB)
- found that there were a couple of areas in the frontal and parietal lobes that there was a large number of glial cells in
- there is an area of his brain missing AND there is something extra |
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Term
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Definition
- how is mind related to physical processes in the brain and body
- investigated through : lesions, imaging, sensory pathways, pharmacology, studying different sorts of brains |
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Term
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Definition
I think therefore I am
- French Scientist
- interested in how the brain and body worked
- did lots of dissections
- concluded that we need to have two different kinds of domains of discourse in some way
-- mental and material
DUALISM |
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Term
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Definition
- descartes
- two different kinds of domains of discourse
- mental and material
- this concept has been the central part of the way
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Term
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Definition
- bishop of Cloin
- IDEALISM
- MENTALISM
- whatever reality is is really coming from perception
- our mental experience is creating things
- "to exist is to be perceived" |
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Term
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Definition
- the notion that really everything is describable in terms of physical properties of particles and energies and fields
- matter, mass, energies --> all physical properties
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Term
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Definition
- mind and mental experiences emerge from the physical properties of the brain
- WHEEL - made out of physical stuff but when you make this configuration of this shape then the wheel can role and there are properties of the wheel that you would not necessarily be able to get without them being connected |
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Term
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Definition
- the principle of psychology
- the first professor of psychology in the US at harvard
- study of the mind --> study behavior --> study neural correlates --> study mental phenomena
- |
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Term
| Issac Newton, Galileo, Copernicus |
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Definition
- idea was to focus study on the external world,
- realized that they could be described by mathematical concepts |
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